Exam Focus on Issues in the philosophy Thomas Aquinas

Exam Focus on Issues in the philosophy Thomas Aquinas

Whether the Human Soul is a Body. Q. 75.

Aquinas notes that since the soul is the first principle of life, it cannot be corporeal; for if it were so, then whatever is corporeal will be animate. Hence, it is not a body, but the act of the body.

Whether the Human soul is self-subsistent

The soul is self-subsistent, for it does not depend on the body for its own existence. This is why it is the first principle vital action- meaning it can exists on its own.    

If the Body is necessary for the Soul to know

The body is necessary for the soul to know when the soul is united to the body since nothing enters the intellect unless it passes through the senses. However, this is not the case when the soul is separated from the body, for the soul as a self-subsisting substance can know without the body.

The difference between man and animal soul

Man is a rational animal, guided by not just emotions and instinct like the lower animals, but by reason. Aquinas points out that rationality is the ability to think logically and consistently. Rationality goes with free will, deliberate choice and a corresponding praise or blame.

Aquinas and Plato on whether the souls of brute animals are subsistent.

For Plato, the souls of brute animals would be subsistent. This is because he draws a distinction between intellect and senses. He referred both to an incorporeal principle, maintaining that sensing, just as understanding belong to the soul.

However, for Aquinas the souls of the brute animals are not subsistent because their souls have no per se operations. They rather depend on the body. For the operation of anything follows the mood of its being.

Whether the human soul is incorruptible

Since the human is the first principle of life, it cannot be corruptible. Also, since the soul is in subsistence form, it cannot cease to exist, therefore it remains incorruptible. Again, corruption can only be found where there is contrariety emanating from generation and corruption. And because the soul is an intellect substance, it cannot be corruptible.

The implications of Plato’s notion of the human soul, and Aquinas’ counter position.

Plato holds that man is a soul making use of a body. He notes that the soul is imprisoned in the body, and that the complete nature of the human species is found in the soul. Therefore, this implies that the human person is not a composite of soul and body as we know it, but are two uncooperative entities that relate just as a captain relates to a ship. From these, it is then clear why he posits knowledge to be a form of reminiscence.

On the other hand, Aquinas argues that the soul and the body work together harmoniously and simultaneously in an inter-coordinated manner, with one ordering the other. Hence for him, nothing enters the intellect unless it passes through the senses.

Is the soul of the same species as an Angel?

 Aquinas argues that both the soul and the angel are incorporeal substances, but they differ in the mode of species. There is specific difference between a soul and an angel. Hence, it is impossible for the soul and an angel to be of one species

Whether the intellectual principle is united to the body as its form. Q. 76.

Aquinas affirms this, stating that since that intellect by which we primarily understand is the form of the body, therefore through the intelligible species the possible intellect is linked to the body of this or that particular man.

Whether the soul is properly united to the body

On this Aquinas states that the body to which the intellectual soul belongs should be a mixed body above others, reduced to the most equable complexion. For this reason, among animals man has the best sense of touch, and those men who have the best sense of touch possess the best intelligence.

Whether the essence of the soul is its power. Q. 77

Aquinas states that it is impossible to admit that the power of the soul is its essence. This is because the operation of the soul and the soul itself are two different things. It is not in what the soul is able to do, otherwise whenever that power fails, the soul fails too. Hence, the essence of the soul is not its power.

Whether there are several powers of the soul

The human soul requires many and various operations and powers; but to angels a smaller variety of power is sufficient, while in God there is no power or action beyond His own essence. Therefore, we must of necessity affirm the existence of many powers in the soul.

Whether the powers are distinguished by their acts and objects

Aquinas explains that the nature of the power is known from the object in which it is directed. A power as such is directed to an act. Consequently, the powers are of necessity distinguished by their acts and objects.

Whether among the powers of the soul there is order

Among the powers of the soul there is an order according to: Nature, Generation and Time. First, Inasmuch as perfect things are by their nature prior to imperfect things, there is order by nature. Then, insofar as from being perfect a thing comes to be perfect, there is order according to generation and time.

How does Aquinas explain the nature of the Intellectual Power? Q. 79.

On the Intellect as a power of the Soul and a Passive Power

Aquinas began by affirming that the intellect is a power of the soul, though it is not the very essence of the soul. For it is in God alone that the intellect is one and the same with the essence, just as His action is one with His being. Also Aquinas notes that the intellect enables the soul to act, but is never the soul itself.

Furthermore he affirms that the intellect is a passive power; for passivity entails the taking away or an addition of something to a thing. In a wider sense, a thing is passive if it is in potentiality to something. Hence, the intellect is a passive power.

Again, Aquinas states that the divine intellect is in act and never in potentiality. The human intellect on the other hand is a clean slate from the start and is in potentiality with regard to the things intelligible.

Between Plato and Aquinas On Active Intellect

Similarly, he points out that the active intellect activates the passive power of the intellect. In fact, the intellect as a passive power is the possibility for acquiring knowledge.

Plato however argues that the active intellect is substantially outside the soul in the world of ideas; but Aquinas taking after Aristotle rather notes that the active intellect is in us. Also, while Plato takes the active intellect to be God, Aquinas argues that the separate intellect which is God and substantially different from that of humans, must not be confused with active intellect which is not outside the human person, but is within them (the human person).

On Reason and the Intellect

Furthermore, Aquinas opines that Reason is the same with the intellect since man is rational and his knowledge involves a movement. Whereas in Angels movement is not involved for they possess perfect knowledge of intelligible truth and do not need to proceed from one to another as humans do.

Also, he notes that Reason is the movement of the intellect towards understanding. It is the motion from one thing known to another to be known- from the known to the unknown. Reason is then compared to understanding, as movement is to rest. This is the why he avers that the human reason proceeds by an apprehension of things simply understood which are first principle. In fact, in man, reason and understanding are of the same powers, since it is the power of reason that propels and enliven understanding

On Speculative and Practical Intellects

In addition, Aquinas affirms that the speculative intellect differs from the practical intellect based on their ends, though they are not distinct powers. For the intellect directs us to operation with regard to truth we have speculated or acquired. Hence, the speculative intellect directs what it apprehended to the intellect’s consideration.

On Syndresis and Conscience

Aquinas equally notes that the first practical principle bestowed on us by nature is a natural habit called Syndresis. According to him, Syndresis disposes us to the good and aids the avoidance of evil. So, Syndresis is the habit or disposition towards the first practical principle.

Finally, he points out that conscience is not a power but an act. It is an act applying knowledge to individual cases. Conscience is not a knowledge acquired in isolation, but in relation and union with others. Also, since Syndresis is a habit, and habit the principle of act, therefore it is often called Syndresis Conscience.

Treatise On Law

Q. 90

A law is an ordinance of reason promulgated for the common good made by the one whi has care of the community. A law must be according to reason, made by a comptent authority, meant for the common good, and it must also be promulgated. Reason is emphasized because it is said to be the rule and measure of every act. While Ayer and Hobbes would posit that morality is based on feelings and desires, Aquinas would say it is based on rationality.

Law is something pertaining to reason: Law is a rule and measure of acts whereby man is induced to act or refrained from acting. But the rule and measure of human acts is reason, since it belongs to reason to direct to the end. Law-Rule of measure and acts-Reason. The Law is something Directed towards the common good: As reason is the principle of human acts so in reason itself there is something which is the principle in respect to the rest. The law is ordered to the common good. Law-Reason-Happiness-Universal happiness-Common good. Whether the reason of any man is competent to make laws? To order anything to the common good belongs either to the whole group or the one who care of the group. Promulgation: A law must be promulgated in order to obtain a force.

\Q, 91 Kinds of Law

There are four kinds of law, namely, Eternal, Natural, Divine and Human. Eternal law is divine reason governing the universe. Natural law is rational creature participation in the eternal law. Divine law is a law promulgated by God. Human law is the particular determination or application of the natural law. F our reasons are given for the divine law: 1. For directing man to his end, eternal happiness. 2. To enable man to know what he ought to do and to avoid. 3. The inadequacy of human law. 4. To root out all evil. Whether there is one divine law? Divine law comes as old and new because the recipients of the old were imperfect, and the new comes because its recipients were perfected. The old induces to obey by fear of punishment but the new induces man to obey by love.

Q. 92 The effects of Law

The effects of law are to make man simply good if he acts for the common good as regulated by divine justice. Every law permits, forbids or punishes. The law commands what is generally good, e.g., acts of virtue. It also forbids what is generally evil (acts of voce). It permits what is generally indifferent (amoral acts).

Q. 93 The Eternal Law

Eternal law as a sovereign type: Eternal law exists in God as a type of divine wisdom moving all things to their due end. God governs the universe through the eternal law. Eternal law is thus the source of every law and the sovereign of all laws. Is Eternal law known by all? No one can know the eternal law as it is in itself. Only the blessed who see God in his essence can see the eternal law as it is. But every rational creature knows it in its reflections, more or less. For evry knowledge of truth is a kind of reflection and participation of the eternal law. Eternal law as source: All laws in so far as they partake of right reason are derived from the eternal law. Also, all things created by God, contingent or necessary, are subject to the eternal law, while things pertaining to the divine are not, but are eternal law itself. Also, irrational creatures are subject to the eternal law through being moved by divine providence. Rational creatures are subject through divine commandment. More so, all human affairs are subject to the eternal law, some perfectly, others imperfectly.

Q. 94 The Natural Law

Natural law, because it is an indemonstrable principle, is not an habit but is in us habitually. How many precepts are there in natural law? There are more than precepts, namely” 1.Practical reason apprehending that which is good or bad, 2. Precepts based on what we have in common with animals, 3.Precepts proper to man’s nature. Are all acts of virtue prescribed by the natural law? Yes, since each one’s reason naturally dictates to him to act virtuously. Also, the natural law is the same for all, both as to rectitude (morality) and to knowledge. It may however not be the same in some, precisely because of the presence of vices. Natural Law and Change: Change could be seen in two ways, by addition and by subtraction. By addition, the natural law can change, mainly by addition from divine and human laws. In this sense, change is possible. However, change is Impossible by subtraction. More so, NL, in s far as it relates to general principles, cannot be blotted from the heart. They can, as secondary precepts, be blotted from the heart of man.

Q. 95 The Human Law

Man needs to make law to enable him to possess peace and virtue. Virtue, because man needs to employ his energy in acquiring the virtues, the employing of these energies demands a set of laws. Peace because a society without any set of agreed upon laws will lead to chaos. Also, every human law is derived from the natural law. This is so because rightness derives from reason, and reason derives from nature. Thus since every human law is based on reason, they must derive from natural law.

Write an essay on Natural Law according to Aquinas and its usefulness or otherwise in a multi religious entity such as Nigeria.

What is Natural Law?

First and foremost, Aquinas defines law as an ordinance of reason promulgated for the common good made by the one who has care of the community. He also defines natural law is rational creature’s participation in eternal law. It is not a habit but something approved/governed by reason. Aquinas based his discourse on natural law on God and his relationship with man. God has an idea (eternal law) in his intellect, an idea by which he governs the world. This idea is however participated in by the natural law, which serves to direct the affairs of rational creatures. This natural law is further made into particular determinations for the intelligent organization of common life for the sake of common good. Furthermore, Aquinas notes that in so far as the eternal law governs all things and the natural law is a participation of rational creature in the eternal law, the affairs of rational creatures are thus governed by the natural law. He also states that the natural law is not only present in the ruler but also in the ruled.

            Aquinas distinguishes different levels of precepts that the natural law entails. The most universal is the command “Good is to done and pursued and evil is to be avoided”. But what is the good? The good is that which all desires. It is the object of the will. A good may however be real or apparent. On the level that we share with all substances the natural law requires that we preserve ourselves in being. Thus, euthanasia, suicide are abhorred. On the level that we share with all other things, natural law prescribes that we preserve our life and transmit that life to the next generation. On the level that is specific to man, the natural law requires that we exercise activities common to us, e.g., love, knowledge. In all, the natural law helps us to develop our moral and natural capacities for for the wellbeing of both individuals and society. Virtues are also essential in the proper working and application of natural.

Its Usefulness   The Guiding Principle is: Ðo good and avoid evil.

1.Harmony: Different religions prescribe their own laws or rules for living, and this could be conflicting. Thus, natural law helps to harmonise such laws. 2 Tolerance and survival: NL helps us to tolerate the other, and thus survive together.3. Creates a sense focus for our leaders as they seek to meet our common good. 4. Respect and promotion of the human person 5. Prosperity of society and its members 6. Elimination of religious fundamentalismPromotes reason over and above feelings and desires  7. Provides the environment for

            Q. Highlight and explain the major points in Aquinas’ philosophy of law showing how these can be relevant to contemporary political discourse in Nigeria.               2015