INTRODUCTION TO METAPHYSICS

                                    INTRODUCTION TO METAPHYSICS

The subject matter of Metaphysics is Being as such. The methodology is Heuristic. Since the subject matter is comprehensive, it is only know when everything to be known is known completely.

There are three questions basic to its methodology

1. What is Being
2. How do we know Being?
3. What do we do when we know Being? 

We start from question, when we have posited a working definition of Being. Being is what is to be grasped by   a. empirical observation b. intellectual inquiry c. rational judgment.

What do we do when we when we know.

1. Potency and Act.

-          Nothing is in the intellect without passing through Senses.

1. Division of Science based on the level of their termination in the cognitive scale – Senses, Imaginative, Intellect.

(a)   Empirical sciences

(b)   Mathematical sciences

(c)   Metaphysics

(a)   Empirical knowledge: on the First level knowledge terminates in the senses for the properties and accidents of the thing which are shown by the senses synthetically express the nature of the thing.

Hence, the intellect makes a judgment which it must verify but going back to the sensible data not by removing aloof. The science it attains is natural/ physical science

Natural things are known according to what they reveal to the science. To neglect the testimony of the senses is to fall into error in natural sciences- St.Thomas

So abstraction is from individual matter- this man from that man, this table from that table, - is common is retained in the definition and what is particular is accidental qualifications.

By sensible matter is meant matter insofar as it is subject to sensible qualities – hot, cold, soft, hard, etc.

Common sensible matter - found in common in a group/class.

(b)   Mathematical Knowledge Here scientific knowledge terminates in the imagination. After abstraction what remains is the imaginable and mathematical judgment is about this e.g. quality: extension & number e.g. triangle, 10 does not have temperature or texture: such also are lines, figures, numbers, etc. – they are not verified in the senses/ by the senses.

These qualities depend on the intelligible matter – substance insofar as it is subject to quality. So the object of Mathematical knowledge / science depends on matter (sensible) for existence but not for knowledge.

(c)     Metaphysics

Third level of abstraction – terminates in the intellect. Though we sense them, but are known only in the intellect.

-          Knowledge abstracts from both individual matter and from common sensible data – in fact from all matter. It abstracts from matter entirely – the object of metaphysical science is either never in matter or in some cases exists in matter but independent of it.

-          E.g. such things which are common to all things – substance, potency & act, one & many, etc.

                                          OBJECT OF METAPHYSICS

-          Material Object – things considered in the science

-          Formal Object – aspect under which the things are considered. One object but different sciences e.g. Human body – Medicine = health.

Sciences are distinguished according to formal object. All sciences consider being but from different aspects. Metaphysics is different from all because its object is all embracing Being qua being – it considers being as being.

Hence Metaphysics is the science of being as being.

                              RATIONAL FOR METAPHYSICS

 The intellect’s quest for unity – comprehension wander about reality = seed of Metaphysics

                             

                              SCIENCE OF METAPHYSICS

Is Metaphysics a science?

Science as what is a. observed, b. mathematically analyzed, c. hypothesis and theory, d. experimented and accepted.   

Explanation of how things relate  (a.) to us and (b.) how they relate in themselves and other things.

Science – certain and necessary knowledge achieved through understanding of the proper causes of a thing.

1. Understands phenomena – things as they appear
2. Understands reality beneath phenomena – Numena – essence

Metaphysical science: understanding of the principles from which metaphysical truths can be drawn with certitude & necessity.

                              Difficulty of Metaphysics

1. Abstracts subject matter – not given to the senses. Are they real? Are virus and bacteria real?
2. Preoccupation with immediate need.
3. Lack of maturity.

Metaphysics is 

1. Superior – because its knowledge is not demonstrated but of first principles that validate demonstrable science.
2. Wisdom: since it directs every other science being certain & universal. Science of indemonstrable principles of being.
3. Certain: deals with things certain in themselves but less certain to us because of the weakness of the intellect.
4. Universal: need for a universal science is established on the grounds that there are genuine problems that lie beyond the scope of the particular sciences = being? One- many? Metaphysics inquire into the first principles of other sciences.
5. Liberal: studied for itself and not for another. Studies ultimate universal cause of all things.

Demonstration is from causes to effects, that is science.

                                          FORMAL OBJECT

The subject is the starting of the sciences – the terminus ad quo – principles of the procedure.

i.                    Subject = Being as being

ii.                  Properties

iii.                Conclusions

Science seeks the knowledge of formal properties of formal subject. A science is capable of demonstrating with certitude only when it remains with the framework and treats of objects that belong to it specifically.

                              FORMAL SUBJECT AND OBJECT  

Subject and object are correlative terms. Things as they are out there are formal subjects of sciences. When they are known or related to the intellect, they enter as formal object of knowledge. There may be one subject formally, but many formal objects depending on its relation to powers/ faculties. There may be many formal objects, e.g man, animal, plants, - but related to the powers as one formal object, e.g. living – Biology.

“If there are diverse formal objects, there will be diverse disciplines corresponding to them, even though the object is a single entity outside (without) the mind relating to it” (p.20).

If there is a plurality of material objects, but only one formal object, there will be only one discipline to study them.

The nature of a science is not determined by the material object studied in it, but by the particular or approach that the human mind takes with respect to the object.                        E.g. Man- Biologist, Physician, Philosopher, Theologian, etc.

A material object is a potential object of science- (matter out which a thing – the science is had)

Formal object is the form of the science, the determining principle, e.g. health for medicine.

                                                      Method

Object of metaphysics are separated from matter and motion- necessary. Method of metaphysics is separation. It is so because object can live separate from matter. This method corresponds to intellect’s operation of composing and dividing.

Three fold distinctions

(1)   One with respect to the operation of the intellect composing and dividing – properly called separation – this belongs to divine science or metaphysics.

(2)   There is another with respect to the operation by which the qualities of things are formed, which is abstraction of form from sensible matter – this belongs to mathematics.

(3)   There is a third with respect to the same operation which is the abstraction of the universal from the particular, this belongs to empirical sciences – they are about universals.

Abstraction – is to take some aspect in while leaving the others. “That is, being not essentially connected with matter” – metaphysical judgment that separates being from matter.

                                          POTENCY AND ACT

There are two ways of analogical relation of things in metaphysics (a) Substance and Accidents (b) Potency and Act. But first let us let us understand analogy as method of predication in metaphysics. Metaphysics shows all things under the genus of being. Things may be classified under one genus: logically, naturally, formally.

1. Logically – a logical genus is a being of the mind, a classification of thought, a relation to reason. E.g. substance – these have mode of predication in which the signification remains the same.
2. Natural – this concerns things as they exist and not the siginification of the terms. E.g. animals – substance as self existing.
3. Formal – this designates the formal subject of the conclusions of a science. E.g. metaphysics is a genus in which various realities are concerned to be sufficiently one to constitute the formal subject of one science.    

It belongs to one science to consider the proper causes of a genus and the genus itself. There must be in metaphysics a subject that is sufficiently unified to provide the framework within which the metaphysician can demonstrate properties that belong universally to all beings. The unity of the formal subject of metaphysics is substance – the primary subject of investigation in the science – every other thing treated is in relation to it. Metaphysics makes use of this.

                                          Modes of predication

Being is predicated of other things in various ways: 1. Univocal 2. Equivocal 3. Analogical

1. Univocal predication -  this implies when a term is predicated of different things in several ways. But the meaning of the term is the same in each case. E.g. animal of ox, horse, man.
2. Equivocal predication – this is used when a term is predicated of things, but with completely different meaning each time. E.g. dog for animal and dog for star.
3. Analogical predication – when a term is predicated of things with partly same and partly different meaning. Difference as implying diverse relationships. Same – insofar as diverse relationships are all referred to one and the same thing.

                                                     

                                                      ANALOGY

This is basically the language of metaphysics though not limited to metaphysics. Every word/ term has a foundation in reality unless it is just a mere sound of voice. Hence, unity and diversity in meaning are ultimately based on a unity and diversity in things outside the mind. Root: Ana – logous  = back to the term/ word. Here means back to the idea/ thought.

In analogy, the mind compares different things on the basis of some relationship they bear to each other. So, different things receive a common name because they bear a relation to something that the common name principally signifies. By the use of common name the mind attempts to reduce the diversity of objects to the unity of thought. Analogy involves equivocation for the meanings are not the same. It also involves since the common term refers to a basic thing.

WHY

Names originate from our experience of a reality/ thing – they have limited application but the mind quests for unity. All its vitality is geared towards this unity. So language grows in the mind as a means of unification of all things. So a name may move from concreteness to abstract relations. Difficulty of metaphysics sometimes arises from comprehending how human mind works to arrive at knowledge.

The mind is potency – so it moves from potency to act in acquiring knowledge. It uses previous knowledge to proceed to new ideas. The movement is both synthetic and analytic.  Analogy seeks concepts that will bridge the intelligible diversity between things. These concepts are given names which are signs of common concepts.

                              Modes of signification / the signified

Twofold kinds of priority in analogy

1. The priority with respect to the imposition of the analogous term.
2. The priority with respect to the nature of the thing signified by common names. So there is the priority of being and priority of the name in metaphysics.

                                          LOGIC/ METAPHYSICS

The logical use of analogy refers primarily to the mode of signification of names – i.e. mind. Metaphysical use of analogy is to the diversity in existing things. The difference between logic and metaphysics is not based solely upon our manner of conceiving reality but upon the objective unity and diversity found in existing things. The logician is concerned with the conceptual being, but the metaphysician … with the real being.

Division of Analogy according to Signification and Existence

Analogy is divided into 3

1. Analogy according to signification.

Only the signification of a common name applied to different things. E.g. Health – Animal (subject), urine (sign), medicine or diet (cause of).The analogous unity comes from the relationship of the diverse subjects of predication to a common predicate.

Health –  1. Animal, 2. Urine, 3. Medicine / diet.

2. Analogy in Existence – not in signification

 In this several different things have one and the same signification but in different degrees of perfection in which the reality signified is possessed. E.g. Soul – man, animal,

3. Analogy in Existence and Signification.

Here there is absolute identity neither in signification nor in the mode of existence, but similarity. E.g. Being of substance and accidents. Substance and accidents do not have the same signification with respect to being nor mode of existence. They are not univocal or equivocal for there is signification for there is a basis of comparison both in signification and in existence of what is signified.

         

Potency and act

Knowledge of being through analogy is either through substance and accidents or potency and act. The division of being into potency and act is one of the two ways of knowing the analogy of being that is very important for the metaphysician. This understanding grants and grasps the feet that imperfect beings are ordered to the perfect. The understanding of the ten (10) categories of substance and accidents flows into this because we understand that imperfect being – the substance and accidents of predicament world constitute a state of imperfection with respect to a higher order of being more actual than sensible things. Thus leading us to the first cause of things – a pure act. It is about critical examination of finite things/ beings – the understanding of whose principles – will lead us to the acceptance of the existence of the infinite. Philosophers hold that our physical world is composed of contrary elements – in the sense of correlative but imperfect principles – as in moving and growing substances. E.g. Mitosis (break away) and Meiosis (division). In life or in the world – things both complete and incomplete, active and potency etc. World tending to perfection and not to achievement.  The inner composition of the world is of potentiality and actuality. Always a partial attainment of goodness and with ever an ever present capacity for greater good, likewise evil.

Potency

Our knowledge of act and potency is a reflection of our world of experience, but we move from that experience to knowledge of act and potency applicable to higher beings. Every potency owe its existence to an actual being, so the knowledge of potency we seek is that which can be applied to the common being. Universal notion of potency in metaphysics (1) is drawn from that active principle really existing in things – the ability to effect change in others – active potency. (2) The passive potency is known through the active since the change in subject with passive potency is due to active potency. For all potencies are reducible to the kind of potency that is original principle of change in another insofar as it is other. The active and passive principle is always separated. The passive intellect is the capacity to receive something from something else, so presupposes a giver. Analogy helps to relate any other type/ kind of potency in animate, inanimate, rational, irrational, spiritual – corporeal etc to active potency in nature.

Etymology – Potency is first used for strong/powerful men, to things that cannot change or acted upon – later it was transferred to whatever receives the action of an agent – such a thing is said to have potency. The operation or action in which an active potency completed corresponds to active potency. And whatever corresponds to passive potency as its prediction and complement is called Act.

Substance and Accidents

What is Substance?

The primary study of substance is the basic subject of metaphysics. We divide beings into categories based on real or perceived qualities/ properties. So the genera or category of being which is primary are called Predicaments. This is because they are differentiated according to different modes of predication. Among things predicated, some signify a thing – substance, some quality or quantity to which each predication there must be an existing something signifying what is predicated.

Metaphysics treats reality of substance as primary predicate of being. For substance is what primarily is. Other things that were in it are also treated in a secondary or related manner. So primarily and principally, the science of metaphysics considers the principles and causes of substances.

Notions  of Substance

There are four (4) notions of substance, which are:

1. The quiddity or essence or nature of a thing
2. Universals – singulars
3. Primary genus – general of things – 2^nd substance
4. The subject – the particular substance – first substance.

Essence – nature – idealist views – for their act of existence adds nothing much since the real thing is abstract form of essence – idea. But essence is not a complete being, so cannot be the substance. It is only a principle so does not belong to the categories of things which are of things existing. Existence is the supreme perfection of being.

1. Is used to distinguish between common nature and the concrete one. Essence / quiddity is of common nature. But we seek the individual substance. So the essence is the formal point of individual substance, but not the existing thing. It is that by the individual exists.
2. Universal is not the primary meaning of substance. Plato believes and posited abstract universal form – it is contrary to the evidence of natural philosophy and incapable of solving scientific problem/ knowledge.
3. Primary genus – all things are one substance, they only participate differently/ at varying degree which grounds material, plants, animals, man.
4. First substance: - individual substance as it exists concretely in nature.

(a)   It is recognized as the subject of predication of other things in essential or accidental manner.

(b)   The intellect grasps that the first substance holds the primacy in the order of existing things, other reality depend on it.

(c)   This, existent and grasp through the senses is the proper subject of metaphysics.

Descriptive definition

1.      Essence – what it is without existence attached.

2.      A substance is that which does not exist in a subject.

3.      A substance is a thing to which it belongs to be not in a subject. This definition descriptively given applies properly to imperfect substances in which essence is in potency to the act of existence. - does not apply to God.

4.      Substance is that “to which is due existence per se”

-          Meaning of “per se” –

1. Substance has no dependency on any other for its act of existence – not absolute – (not univocal)
2. Per se – also = another – being subject and being in a subject. Per se = in se that is, in itself, is a subject.
3. A.  In opposition to accidents = existing in another. B. existing through another = a secondary cause.

Note: - First substance is being per se not because it is caused – it means that it has a nature that calls for a primary kind of existence that constitutes it as a subject in its own right. Not that it is not constitute nor independent of external cause.