IS ISLAM A PEACEFULL OR VIOLENT RELIGION.
Introduction
It
has been a controversial issue to react to, for, or against, the position
whether or not Islam is a peaceful or a fanatic violent religion. This is
difficult given the various experiences that people have seen, heard and
experienced by the inhumane, dehumanizing violent, attitudes displayed by some
fanatic Islamic sects: such as Boko Haram, ISIS and so on. Since Islam has had
a long period of history, has it being this way? What is the nature of this
religion? Is there a country or state that is purely Islamic? If there is, how
is it and, how did the whole issue or concept of Islamic state or Jihad emerge?
The term
jihad state, as it were, refers to the states of West Africa which flourished
particularly during the 19th century under French colonial rule.
According to historians, these states were founded on the basis of the Islamic
Jihad. It is difficult to piece together the exact conditions which
allowed the widespread influence of these states to develop as rapidly as they
did, however, there were several factors that certainly played an influential
role in the creation of these states.[1]
Thus, in order to fully understand the implications of the existence of these
jihad states, the understanding of the history of the states are very
paramount. Though the presence of jihad states was not a specific attribute of
the 19th century, these states certainly were much more numerous and
more prominent during this century. Some were larger and more influential
than others, and though many of these states were somewhat connected, they all
arose independently.[2]
Thus,
our aim in this presentation is to focus on the concept of Jihad states. And
so, by way of methodology, we shall be looking at the meaning of jihad, the
origin, its function and operation, its religious motivation and economic
motives, and finally the Sokoto Caliphate with respect to its relationship with
Jihad.
What is Jihad?
The word Jihad comes from the Arabic
root word J-H-D, which means strive.[3] The word Jihad formally or
essentially means an effort, made by people, to practice religion in the face
of oppression and persecution. This effort could be in fighting the evil in
your own heart, or in standing up to a dictator. However, “military effort is
included as an option, but as a last resort and not "to spread Islam by
the sword" as the stereotype would have one believe.” [4]
The
Islamic state expanded very rapidly after the death of Muhammad through
remarkable success both at converting unbelievers to Islam and by military
conquests of the Islamic community’s opponents Immediately after the prophet’s
death in 632, Abu Bakr, as the first caliph, continued the effort to abolish
paganism among the Arab tribe and also to incorporate Arabia into a region
controlled by political power. However, the widespread situation of Muslims
living under pagan rule did not suit Muslims religious sensibilities. They
lived in a permanent state of funa, a situation in which rule by a law other
than Sharia constantly invited or permitted the common people slip away from
Islam. Classical Islamic theory allows
only two choices for Muslims under such a situation, either to revolt and
establish an Islamic state or to emigrate, making a Hijra to a land where
Sharia prevails.[5]
The
Fulani were an essential part of the history of jihad states in West Africa.
They are a group of people primarily found in West Africa. Though they are
not by any measure the only citizens who
were calling for reform in the 19th century, they provide a
strong Islam-oriented backbone for these movements. “The Fulani becoming
militarily and politically active had a direct and decisive impact on the creation
of many jihad states, some larger and more prominent than others.”[6]
THE PURPOSE AND THE RELIGIOUS
MOTIVATION OF JIHAD
The
purpose of Jihad, as some scholars argue, is not directly to spread the Islamic
faith but to extend sovereign Muslim power faith in the face of persecution.
While some hold the view that Islam according to Muhammad’s injunction should
conquer, and in fact, be the religion of the whole world. Douglas E. Streusand in his article ‘What
does Jihad Mean?’ held the belief that some formed one distinct interpretation
of jihad as war, but Ibn Taymiya and his
followers formed another. For
the former,
Jihad
fits a context of the world divided into Muslim and non-Muslim zones, Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam) and Dar al-Harb (Abode of War)
respectively. This model implies perpetual warfare between Muslims and
non-Muslims until the territory under Muslim control absorbs what is not, an
attitude that perhaps reflects the optimism that resulted from the quick and
far-reaching Arab conquests. Extending Dar al-Islam does not mean the
annihilation of all non-Muslims, however, nor even their necessary conversion. Indeed,
jihad cannot imply conversion by force, for the Qur'an (2:256) specifically
states "there is no compulsion in religion." Jihad has an explicitly
political aim: the establishment of Muslim rule, which in turn has two
benefits: it articulates Islam's supersession of other faiths and creates the
opportunity for Muslims to create a just political and social order.
…the
inhabitants of Dar al-Harb (known as harbis)
into two: People of the Book (Ahl
al-Kitab) and polytheists. People of the Book, defined in the Qur'an as
Christians, Jews, and Sabeans, have a distinct status in Muslim eyes because
they follow a genuine-if incomplete-revelation from a genuine prophet. They may
live undisturbed under Muslim rule so long as they accept a subordinate status
(that of the dhimmi) which
entails paying a tribute (jizya)
and suffering a wide range of disabilities. As for polytheists, the law
requires Muslims to offer them the choice of Islam or death, though this was
rarely followed after the initial Muslim conquest of Arabia. Instead, Muslims
generally treated all harbis as
People of the Book. [7]
The war, as he further, is not a
non-stop war. The injunction, however, is to cover the whole world.
Furthermore, he posited that the same scholars understood jihad not as an obligation
of each individual Muslim but as a general obligation of the Muslim community.
Only in emergencies, when Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam) comes under unexpected
attack, do they expect all Muslims to participate in jihad warfare. Under
normal circumstances, the failure of the community to fulfill the obligation of
jihad is sinful; but an individual Muslim, since it is not essentially his or
her role, need not participate so long as other Muslims carry the burden. Shi'i
writers make a further qualification, that offensive jihad is permissible only
in the presence of the expected Imam-and thus not under current circumstances.
ECONOMIC MOTIVES OF JIHADS IN WEST
AFRICA
In
the Nigeria area, Islam is said to have made its first appearance around Kanem,
North-east of the lake chad in about the 8th century A.D. The vehicle of its
spread included, among others, trade links with North Africa, the Muslim
Missionaries and later the Jihad.
Between the 14th and 15th centuries, the spread of Islam also received a
fillip through the activities of the rulers of centralised state like Kano and
Katsina.[8]
Nevertheless, economic motives of
Jihads were to have control over the Atlantic slave market.[9] The economic side of a Jihad was the charge
to set up a state in response to a market attraction. The Atlantic trade stimulated supply routes
going far to the interiors, organized mainly by Mande speaking Dyula. The traders according to Jobson in 1621, had
free recourse through all places even in times of war. Besides these precarious arrangements,
combination of new trading opportunities and religious motivation resulted in
series of Jihads and full-fledged states in Western Sudan.
The first of the Jihad movement was
Zawaya. This occurred among some Berber clerical clans who had kept up the
religious of the Murabits, under the leadership of Nasiraddin. They invaded
Futo Toro and the wolof states, south of the Senegal river.[10]
Overview of Jihad states in Nigeria
In
some literatures, it would be found that the term jihad state
is historically used in reference to the 19th century Islamic conquests in
Western Africa, especially the Fulani jihad. A state-founding jihad was led by Usman dan
Fodio in the first decade of the 19th century in and around Nigeria.
For
a clearer grasp of the concept of jihad, it is pertinent we make a general
overview of the Jihad states, most of which were in colonial times brought into
the British Northern Nigeria Protectorate around
1901-1903.
- Abuja, replacing the former Zuba; the ruler's title was Sarkin Zazzau, from 1828 also Emir
- Adamawa (now partially in Cameroon), founded in 1809; title
Baban-Lamido
- Agaie, founded in 1822; title
emir
- Bauchi
Emirate,
founded in 1805; title Lamido (laamiiɗo in Fula language), meaning "ruler"
(similar meaning to Emir )
- Gombe, founded in 1804; title Modibo Gombe.
- Gwandu, a major Fulbe jihad state,
founded in 1817; title Emir
- Hadejia, replaced Biram (title
Sarkin Biram) in 1805; new title Sarkin Hadejia, from 1808 also styled
Emir
- Jama`are, founded in 1811; style
Emir.
- Jema`an Darroro, founded in 1810; title
Emir
- Kano replaced the old (Hausa) Kano state in March 1807;
the old title Sarkin Kano is still used, but now also styled Emir
- Katagum, founded in 1807; title
Sarkin Katagum, also styled Emir
- Katsina replaced the old (Hausa)
Katsina state in 1805; the old title Sarkin Katsina is still used, but now
also styled Emir.
- Kazaure, founded in 1818; title
Emir, also styled Sarkin *Arewa (apparently imitating neighbours)
- Keffi, founded in 1802; title
Emir
- Lafiagi,
founded in 1824; new title Emir
- Lapai, founded in 1825; style
Emir
- Mubi, founded in 18..; title
Emir
- Muri, founded in 1817, style
Emir; 1892-1893 de facto French protectorate, 1901 part of Northern
Nigerian British protectorate
- Sokoto, the center of the Fulani
jihad, established on 21 February 1804 by Usman dan Fodio, title Amir al-Mu´minin, also
styled Lamido Julbe; on 20 April 1817 Sokoto was styled sultanate (title sultan, also styled Amir
al-Mu´minin and
Sarkin Musulmi), the suzerain of all Fulbe
jihad states; in 1903 the British occupied Sokoto Sultanate
- Zaria, superseded the old Zazzau
state (title Sarkin Zazzau) on 31 December 1808; new style first Malam,
since October/November 1835 Emir, also styled Sarkin Zaria and Sarkin
Zazzau[11]
SOKOTO CALIPHATE
The
Sokoto Caliphate was an Islamic state, the most powerful in West Africa in the
19th century. The town of Sokoto was
founded in 1809 when Muhammed Bello chose the site as his headquarters.
Sokoto Caliphate, 19th century
According
to literature, Uthman Dan Fodio is one of the most important figures in the
history of the West African jihad states. He was the activist who set off
the events which led to the creation of these states, particularly the creation
of the Sokoto Caliphate. The story has it that when Bawa was the leader
of Gorbir, a large city-state in Hausaland, he hired Uthman as a tutor for his
chidren in his compound. And thus, this gave Uthman honour. Though, Bawa
himself was not a Muslim, he was tolerant of Dan Fodio’s preaching.
“This made it possible for Dan Fodio to build a name for himself and gain
followers throughout the city of Gorbir. Dan Fodio did not often
preach to leaders or particularly powerful people for that matter. He
generally directed his preaching to the ordinary
people, rallying support for change and pushing Islam as the medium for that
change.”
When
Bawa died, so did the official approval of Dan Fodio (Collins 166.) He began
to attract continuously more negative attention and was forced to leave the court.
After Bawa’s grandson Yunfa came to power, the situation between Dan Fodio and
the ruling elite had become incredibly tense. At one point Yunfa calls Dan
Fodio to his court and pulls a
gun on him in what was likely a moment of rage. The gun allegedly
backfired, burning Yunfa’s clothing but leaving Dan Fodio unharmed (Waldman 347.)
Obviously, this incident only served to increase Dan Fodio's status in the eyes
of his supporters. Shortly after this incident, it became apparent to Dan
Fodio that there was no reasoning with Yunfa, and jihad seemed imminent…. Jihad
was declared because Dan Fodio and his community had to make the decision to
fight or be destroyed (Waldman 349.)
The
movement gained momentum rapidly, with support spanning across members from all
elements of society (Waldman 350.) This aspect of the jihad
complicated things. Surprisingly, Islam was not particularly strong
within the region. Dan Fodio’s followers, which consisted mostly of the
Fulani were only a fraction of the revolutionary population.
Religion was used by Dan Fodio to instill a sense of unity within the group and
motivate the people to fight, but once the wheels were set in motion the rules
of jihad were quickly forgotten (Waldman 351.) Nevertheless, and even
after several defeats, the jihad was successful and established control over
the Hausa state (Waldman 354.) The Sokoto
Caliphate was the largest of the
jihad states, and lasted formally from around 1809 (Waldman 333) to l903 when
it was divided by colonial powers (Umar 135.) During the colonial era,
Europeans became intrigued by the state and attracted many visitors (Umar
137.) Though the caliphate has been dissolved for quite some time,
Sokoto and its neighbouring states defined several borders which are still in
place today (Cook 89.)[12]
In
1812, Uthman Dan Fodio divided the administration of the empire between his two
sons. Muhammad Bello for the eastern part, with Sokoto as his capital, and his
brother Abdallah for the West, with his capital first at Bodinga and later
Gwandu. In 1815 “Uthman Dan Fodio moved
to Sokoto, where he died on April 1817.
However,
it should be noted that when Uthman began his Jihad he distributed flags to
Fulani leaders throughout Hausa land and beyond. In 1805 they overthrew the Hausa rulers of
Daura, Kano, Katsina. At the end of 1808
Zaria fell and its Hausa ruler fled, to Abuja (now called Suleja).
The Fulani came to power in areas
which never had Muslims rulers. Adama
led the Jihad in the territory named Adamawa after him, more of which is now in
Cameroon. Hamman Ruwa took over Muri,
Yakubu, a former student of Uthman, established himself in Keffi, Nasarawa,
Lafia, Jeme’a and Wuse. The adventurer
Umaru Nagwamatse founded Kontagora, in whose surrounding territory he and his
successors concluded intensive slave raiding.
Nupe, like the Hausa states, had
Muslims rulers before the Jihad of Uthman Dan Fodio. The first was Etsu Jibrilu (1746-59), but
shortly after his death a dynastic dispute led to a division of the
kingdom. In 1805, a Fulani cleric named
Dendo conspired with Majiya Etsu of Raba and the West to defeat Jimada, the
Etsu of Gbara and eastern Nupe land.
Once majiya secured power over a reunited Nupe land he began to fear
Dendo’s influence and expelled him from the kingdom. Dondo then installed Idrisu as puppet king in
Adam Lelu, (near Egan), while himself held the real power in Raba. Idrisu revolted in 1830 and was killed,
leaving the Fulani in complete control of Nupe, the Fulani set up emirates in
Agai, Lapai, Pategi and Lafiagi.
Lastly, Muslim-Fulani coup was a
target in llorin, and the heart land of Oyo empire was incorporated into the Sokoto
Caliphate. For all these emirates were largely independent, so that we cannot
speak of a Sokoto empire, but they recognised the primacy of Sokoto, and Sokoto
or Gwandu had a hand in many of Xuir internal affairs.[13]
The subordinate of the emirates under
the Sokoto Caliphate, after the inclusion of Borno under the supremacy of the
British colonial establishment had serious damaging consequences for their
Islamic character. For, whereas the sine qua non for the Sokoto Caliphate
and the emirates under was the propagation and protection of Islam, including
the enforcement of the Sharia, they had now been transformed into more but
effective agents of British. Thus, the political head of the Sokoto Caliphate
was stripped of his Islamic credentials; since he was no longer the Caliph but
Sultan. And for the Sultan as well as
the Emirs to occupy office they had to swear by the Almighty Allah to loyally
serve the Christian monarch of Britain.
Consequently, after the declaration
of the British protectorate, the British discovered that they have sufficient
personnel necessary for the colonization of the area. Thus, they adopted of
various emirates under Sokoto Caliphate through which the British would conduct
their colonial rules indirectly.[14]
Importantly,
it is essential to note that Sokoto Caliphate was not the only empire. It in
fact influenced the creation of the Massina Empire led by Seku Ahmadu,
who drew his influence directly from Uthman Dan Fodio. As history has it, it is
believed that “Dan Fodio had made Seku a shaykh and sent him a flag prior to
the revolt Seku led against the Bambara, the previous governing enitity (Ade
239.)…. Massina was not as long lasting as the Sokoto Caliphate, but was
operating in full force from 1818 until 1862 when it was attacked by the Tukolors
and defeated.”[15]
Consequently, Futa
Jallon and Futa Toro are also one of the Jihad states but much older than the
other Fulani states. Both of them were slave trade states until the
abolishment of the slave trade in the late 18th century. Futa
Jallon was a jihad state from the early 18th century until French occupation
in 1896. Futa Toro was under Muslim control by the latter part of the
same century, in a revolution connected to the rebellion in Futa Jallon.
Both of these states, though established much earlier, were not nearly as large
or powerful as the Sokoto and Massina empires[16]
Conclusion
From
the foregoing, it is obvious that the jihad states of West Africa were some of
the largest and most powerful entities on that side of the continent;
particularly Sokoto Caliphate. For even
though they existed during the time of colonial masters’ interference, it is
impressive that these states managed to stay intact, at least for as long as
they did. Had colonial powers not eventually become
fully involved in these empires, their fates would have
been much different. By the time the Sokoto Caliphate was broken down and
separated, it had been long established and did not show signs of falling apart
on its own accord.[17] These states as
they were, were jihad states (though most of the population did not necessarily
practice the Islamic faith), led by a minority, and established on the basis of
Islam in a time of crisis. The remnants of these states still continue to have
considerable influence on the region today. These jihadi movements have
undoubtedly had a lasting impact on the condition of Africa throughout recent
history; such that it still affects the religious and the political lines.
Consequently,
with the above in mind, can we name Boko Haram and ISCS as Jihadist groups? They claim to be fighting a “just war”, and they
further desire to islamise their respective country. They believe that
non-Muslims are infidels and must be converted to be saved. I would paint Islam
a peaceful religion but how peaceful? Can we therefore say that Islam vis-à-vis
its Jihad is a peaceful or violent religion?
[1]Zackery M. Heern, Middle East and
Islam. http://themiddleeastandislam.blogspot.com/2012/05/jihad-states.html
[2]Zackery M. Heern, Middle East and
Islam.
http://themiddleeastandislam.blogspot.com/2012/05/jihad-states.html
[3]
http://islam.about.com/od/jihad/f/jihad.htm
[4]
http://islam.about.com/od/jihad/f/jihad.htm
[5] Joseph Kenny, The Spread of Islam
through North to West Africa 7th to 19th centuries. (Lagos: Dominican
Publication, 2000), p. 188.
[6]Zackery M. Heern, Middle East and
Islam. http://themiddleeastandislam.blogspot.com/2012/05/jihad-states.html
[7] Douglas E. Streusand in his article what does Jihad Mean? http://www.meforum.org/357/what-does-jihad-mean
[8] J.A. “Atanda Garba Ashiwaju and
Yaya Abuboka, Nigeria since Independence, the First 25 years” Religion. Vol, IX
(1989), p.111
[9] Joseph Kenny, West Africa and
Islam, what every Catholic should know (Nigeria: Aecawa publication, 2004). P,
105.
[10] Joseph Kenny, The Spread of Islam
through North to West Africa 7th to 19th centuries, p. 188
[11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fula_jihads
[12]Zackery M. Heern, Middle East and
Islam. http://themiddleeastandislam.blogspot.com/2012/05/jihad-states.html
[13] Joseph Kenny, The Spread of Islam
through North to West Africa 7th to 19th centuries. pp. 206 and 207
[14] J.A. “Atanda Garba Ashiwaju and
Yaya Abuboka, Nigeria since Independence, the First 25 years” Religion. Vol, p.
111.
[15]Zackery M. Heern, Middle East and
Islam. http://themiddleeastandislam.blogspot.com/2012/05/jihad-states.html
[16] Barry, Boubacar,
Senegambia and the Atlantic Slave Trade.(Cambridge: The Cambridge Press, 1998)
pp. 95-105.
[17] Zackery M. Heern, Middle East and
Islam. http://themiddleeastandislam.blogspot.com/2012/05/jihad-states.html
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