SCIENCE AND MANKIND
F
COURSE OUTLINE
·
Meaning and Nature of Science.
-
Definition of science
-
Science as a body of knowledge
·
Scientific Method
-
Principles of observation
-
Formation of hypothesis
·
Scientific hypothesis
-
Scientific facts
-
Scientific theories
-
Scientific laws
·
Historical survey of the development of science
·
Bacon’s Induction
·
Science and technology
·
The problem of social sciences/scientific study
and social phenomenon
·
Science and ethics
·
Science and religion
·
Science and development
·
Science and society
·
Contemporary ecological crisis and man’s
response to it.
v
20/10/09
F
What is Science?
The concept ‘science’ has penetrated
into every aspects of human enquiry. Historically science is essentially an
idea of the founding fathers of the Royal Society of London. This is one of the
oldest societies whose aim is the advancement of scientific culture in the
world. It came up around 1662. Among the founding fathers was Christopher Wren,
Robert Boyle etc. These scholars and their colleagues were professional scholars
who were interested in the idea of natural science that was emerging as at that
time. Basically they examined works the works of such scholars as Nicolas
Copernicus, Galileo, Johannes Kepler.
Etymologically, science is derived from
the Latin word ‘scientia’ which means knowledge. Accordingly science has come
to be conceived as systematic study of our experience of reality. From the
foregoing, it is clear that science can be understood from two perspectives:
·
As
a body of knowledge
·
As
a method of acquiring knowledge
F
Science as a
body of knowledge.
As a body of knowledge, science is
identified with any domain of knowledge such as biology, chemistry,
mathematics, physics which differ from other forms of knowledge such as
religion, literature, philosophy etc.
F Science as a method of acquiring knowledge.
As a method of acquiring knowledge,
science becomes a procedure for obtaining knowledge. In this sense, it adopts a
method referred to as scientific method of acquiring knowledge based on
repeated observation and experiment. Therefore, science is a method of
acquiring knowledge following certain universal methodology whose central theme
is the testing of hypothesis and making predictions for the purpose of
understating the universe better. Science attempts to study reality or nature
so as to reduce reality or nature to a logically consistent, systematic order.
F Images of Science
·
Self-consistent
·
Objectivity
·
Rational
·
Reflective
The image of science was triggered off
by the scientific revolution that took place in the 17th century.
Francis Bacon summarised this scientific attitude when he insisted that if you
want to study or understand nature, you must consult nature and not the
writings of Aristotles. Basically the scientific community believed that
science has the image of rationality. Scientific community sees itself as a
paradigm of institutionalised rationality. Furthermore, the scientific
community believed that science is self-testing, objective and self-correcting.
This means that scientific facts and views are open. It also means that science
provides techniques for objective assessment of scientific theories and
scientists dispassionately apply these techniques.
Scientific community also believes that
science is open-ended, meaning that it is not a closed enquiry. Again the
scientific community believes that scientific knowledge is certain. It believes
that through its methods, science arrives at a knowledge that is certain. In
order words, the scientific knowledge is not filled with errors. Scientific community
equally believes that scientific knowledge is progressive.
v 27/10/09
Some scholars however, have challenged
the image of science as presented above by the scientific community. One of
such scholars is Feyerabend who in his book entitled “Against Method”, argues
that we should free ourselves from the strangling hold of ideologically
petrified science. According to him, the ideology the scientific community
presents to us is not just unjustified but it is positively pernicious.
·
Rational Image
of Science.
Science is believed to be rational in
its mode of enquiry. Various scientific discipline shares in the character of
being rational. This character of rationality lies in their use of evidence,
hypothesis and the kind of logic used. Scientists may differ in what phenomenon
they are investigating. Yet they have common understanding of what constitutes
the investigation that are rational or scientific value. The following are some
of the features or characteristics of scientific investigation.
-
Evidence.
Science demands empirical evidence for its investigation
-
Science
blends logic with imagination. Scientific hypothesis and theories could be
arrives at through thinking, imagination, and observation. But for such
thinking to be a candidate for scientific theory, they must be subjected to
logical reasoning. Such logical analysis includes: testing the validity of the
argument
-
Prediction.
Science predicts. It is not enough for science to validate theories and
observations through evidence; it also predicts the future occurrence of any
phenomenon. It is enough for scientific theories to validate observations that
are not known. Theories should have predictive powers. Consequently, science
aims at the prediction of events in the future. The prediction could be the
evidence from the past that are not yet known.
-
Avoidance
of bias. Scientists attempt to avoid bias because bias could influence
evidence, data or interpretations. Thus when something is said to be true,
scientists responds by asking what evidence supports it. But since evidence and
interpretations can be influenced by culture, sex, religion, political setting,
and science demands more.
-
Authoritarianism.
Science avoids or is not authoritarian because authorities can be invalidated
when there is enough evidence. In the past people believed that the earth was
the centre of the universe; eventually this claim was invalidated when there
was enough evidence that the sun rather that the earth is the centre of the
universe. With these facts, the scientific community believes that science is
rational.
v 3/11/2009
F
Method of
Science
Scientific method is a method by which
scientists collectively and over-time, endeavour to construct reliable,
consistent, non-arbitrary representation of the universe/world. In an attempt
to provide such information and representation of the universe, science starts
with observation and description of phenomenon or group of phenomenon. Through
recurrent observation, the scientist forms what we call observation statements.
These are statements that describe what has been observed by scientists over
time. It is this observational statements that form what we refer to as
hypothesis.
When a hypothesis is formed, it is used
to explain the phenomenon. Such hypothesis can be confirmed or disconfirmed by
further experimentations. The scientists will go forward to even predict
quantitatively the existence of other phenomena using such hypothesis. When
such predictions are made, there are also attempts to perform experimental
tests of the predictions using other independent hypothesis. If the experiment
bears out the hypothesis, the hypothesis may come to be regarded as a theory.
That is to say, when consistency is achieved in the confirmation of the
hypothesis, the hypothesis will transform from the status of being a hypothesis
to the status of a theory.
Consistency is achieved when the test
provides a coherent set of propositions which explains a class of phenomena but
if the experiment fails to confirm the hypothesis, it will be rejected. Sometimes
they may not even be rejected entirely but may be modified.
When a theory has what we call universal
application, it assumes the status of a law. The whole process tells us that
science is built on the principle of induction.
F The Function/Characteristic of Scientific Method.
·
Scientific
method is unprejudiced.
·
The
major theme in scientific method is its predictive power of hypothesis as
tested by experiment.
·
The
conclusion that arises stands irrespective of the religious, political cultural
inclination of the investigator.
·
It
does not depend on faith. In other words, a belief that does not rest on
empirical proof is not an article of science.
·
A
theory is accepted not because it is based on the prestige of the proponent or
his convincing power but it is based on the result obtained through observation
F Scientific World View.
·
Science believed that the world is
understandable
·
Ultimate reality/scientific ideas are
subject to change
·
Scientific ideas are subject to change
·
Science believes that knowledge is
durable
·
Scientific world view believes that
science cannot provide answer to all knowledge at a particular point in time
·
Nature is governed by laws and these
laws can be understood so as to predict the future phenomena.
F Historical Development of the Idea
of Science
Science as we have it today did not just
spring up from nowhere or from one person’s idea because there different ideas
about science. Science as we have it today developed with the course of
history. The development of science could be traced back to the classical
period of the Greek early philosophers. Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes
were all involved in scientific inquiries in their effort to find out the
primary substance out which all things were made. They tried to understand the
cosmos through empirical observation. Each other presented an article as the
basic principle of reality. For Thales, this primary or basic reality is water.
For Anaximander it is an indefinite or
boundless. For Anaximenes on the other hand, air is the primary substance
from which all things come.
For Empedocle, it is not possible to
have one principle as the foundation of reality because one element cannot
possibly explain or account for the different things we see in nature.
Consequently he united the three elements that were propounded by his
predecessors and added a fourth, namely earth and fire. For him therefore the
underling principle of reality comprises earth, air, water and fire. Democritus
on the other hand posited atoms as the basic principle of reality.
However, it was only Aristotle who wrote
a systematic account of the cosmos. He did this using abstraction, speculation,
analysis, argumentation and documentation. Though Aristotle never used any
instrument, he presented us with ideas that are still relevant in scientific
investigations. Some of his ideas have been changed while others have been
modified. For Aristotle, the universe has a principle of motion and rest
through which we understand the universe using the human mind by the power of
abstraction.
Beyond Aristotle, scholars have
attempted to understand the universe. The idea of motion he set forth
notwithstanding, scholars of this period did not make use of instruments of
experimentation. They made various attempt to understand the universe, the
heavenly bodies, the laws of nature, motion, and force. One of these attempts
to understand the universe presented a Geo-centric system. Geo-centric system
was Eudocian system, a Greek astronomical conception which held that the earth
was stationary at the centre of the universe while the more perfect heavenly
bodies moved uniformly in circle through the pure region above. A scholar
called Ptolemy of Alexandria wrote a book called Al Magest where he documented
the Eudomic system which put
the earth firmly at the center of the universe.
At a point, there was a new world-view
of astronomical concept of the universe that ran contrary to the eudomine
system. It was suggested by Aristacus in about 300 B.C. The theory was referred
to as heliocentric theory. It was suggested as an attempt to take of some
difficulties inherent in eudemonia system.
It was considered to be the most important scientific hypothesis of the
Alexandrian period. The theory holds that the earth rotated on its axis daily
and moved around the sun in a circular orbit once in a year – the sun and the
fixed stars were thought of as being stationary, in order words, the planets
was conceived to move in orbit around the sun; while the sun itself is at the
centre of the universe.
In the renaissance, between the 9th
to 15th centuries, there were also scientific minded scholars; for
instance, Roger Bacon, a Franciscan Monk. He emphasised observational and
scientific method. For him, natural knowledge from the scripture, the Fathers
of the Church as well as from Aristotle can only be verified by observation and
experimentation. We also have a scholar called Leonardo da Vinci. He also
stated that the observation of nature and experimentation were the only true
method of science. Mathematics, geometry and arithmetic gave knowledge that was
certain within their domain and therefore has something to do with reasoning.
One problem with the ancient science was
the specific and empirical observations that were not based on measurement. In
order words, their observations were based on abstraction. In view of this,
some of their scientific explanations were attributed either to revelation or
the gods. After the renaissance, some changes were made in scientific outlook
which led to scientific revolutions such as the view of Nicolas Copernicus. He
was a Polish mathematician and of course an astronomer. Copernicus
reinvigorated with more empirical explanation the heliocentric theory according
to which the sun is at the centre of the universe and the heavenly bodies
moving around it in a uniformed and circular motion. Copernican system was
based more on logical assumption and Copernicus set forth to justify it
observationally and experimentally. The implication of his theory was that
humanity no longer stands at the centre of creation since the earth is no
longer at the centre of the universe.
The next scholar who went further to
justify the heliocentric theory through experimentation and inductive method
with mathematics was Galileo who lived between 1564 –1642. He used telescope to
observe the heavenly bodies and thus confirmed Copernican theory that the sun
was at the centre of the universe. In order words, he was the scholar who used
empirical observation to support Copernican theory. He was credited for
discovering and establishing the true method of physical sciences this is
because he combined an experimental and deductive method with mathematical
analysis to obtain his results.
While Galileo was observing the heavenly
bodies with his telescope, another scholar was searching the heavens with his
mind – Johannes Kepler. He was the first to apply mathematics as an empirical
method in searching for the laws of heliocentric theory. His greatest
contribution was a discovery of three laws of planetary motion, namely;
·
All
planets travel around the sun in an elliptical path
·
A
planet moves faster in its orbit as it nears the earth
·
There
is a relation between planet’s distance from the sun and the time it takes the
planet to make an orbit.
However, Galileo and Kepler tried to
provide explanation to planetary motion but they were unable to provide answers
to the following questions:
·
If
the earth revolves on its axis around the sun, then why do objects not fly off
the earth as it is rotating?
·
How
is it possible for the earth, suspended in an empty space to go round the sun
without anything pushing it?
v November 24,
2009
It was Isaac Newton who provided answer
to the above question. Isaac lived around 1642 – 1727 AD. Thus 1660s was very
important in the development of modern science. Newton confirmed the works of Copernicus, Kepler,
and Galileo. The works of these men formed a synthesis of physical science.
This shows that science aims to combine interrelated and distinct ideas so as
to respond to the challenges of human existence. Newton proposed a principle of gravitational
attraction and used it to answer the question posed by the works of Galileo and
Kepler.
The basic idea in the principle is that
each object in the universe attracts all the other bodies to the centre of its
form and that if the mass of one of the two attractive bodies is troubled, the
force will be only one quarter (1/4) as great.
With this theory, he was able to explain
the motion of the earth around the sun and not only the motion around the sun
but the falling of fruits from the trees to the ground and all other motions
which he sees on earth. The success and accuracy of Newton’s law was very amazing. With his
theory, generations were able to explain and predict various events even
astronomical ones. It was Francis Bacon however, who articulated all these
scientific theories that have been proposed by the preceding scholars.
Francis Bacon is regarded as the first
person to attempt to arrange the steps of scientific method in a logical
manner. He emphasised the role of scientific invention in giving man mastery of
the forces of nature. As at the renaissance period, science was still part of
philosophy. It was after this period that it succeeded in finding its own
method and that was the method of observation and experimentation.
From that time onward, man have restless
mind; inventing things, understanding nature by the use of scientific method.
For instance, A. L. Lavoiser discovered a gas he named oxygen that enables
combustion. From this time to the 19th century, various inventions
were made in science and technology. However, 19th century is called
the scientific age. Why? Precisely because:
·
The
knowledge of nature grew rapidly
·
People’s
idea about the universe changed – people now realised that human nature obeys
the same natural laws
·
Science
was institutionalised and every other discipline realised that it can make use
of scientific method in its own discipline.
During this
period too, people started making scientific discovery just for the sake of the
unknown and the knowledge obtained in these discoveries were used in making
further investigations. Furthermore, the interest shifted from astronomy to
physics and from physics to biology and other discoveries. Scholars started
inventing various ideas. For instance atom was discovered to be building blocks
of ….. Cells were also understood to the building blocks in living organisms.
Another
important theory in the 19th century was the theory of evolution.
The scientific circle seems to accept more the theory of evolution proposed by
Charles Darwin. In the 20th century, there were also evolutions in
science. X-ray and radio activities were discovered and atoms were not seen
anymore as indivisible but as divisible into proton, electron and neutron.
Furthermore, scholars like Albert Ernestine went further to formulate the
theory of relativity which made the theory of Newtonian physics obsolete. For
instance, Newtonian physics says that time, motion and space were objective
properties. But Ernestine noted that the existence of motion will only have
meaning when it is considered in relation to something else. For instance, if
you are in a moving bus, and you look out, everything you observe will be
moving. Meanwhile you that is seating in the bus, will discover that in
relation to yourself and the bus, you are not moving at all; but in relation to
other things, everything is moving.
Using the new
scientific discoveries then, science is able to have information necessary for
human comfort. For instance, the production of motor cars, food, clothes,
airplane etc.
v 1/12/2009
v Term Paper:
Topic: Are scientific truths and
religious truths antagonistic, complementary, or the same? Provide a rational
argument to justify your claims.
-
Not
less than 7 pages.
F Science and Technology.
Science as we have discovered can be
understood as a body of knowledge or a process through which we understand
reality using a method. The findings of science are translated into new or improved
products or processes through technology. Technology can be defined as an
application of scientific knowledge and research with the aim of developing
product and process for the use of man. Technology is characterised by devises,
processes, and materials. Technology is a collection of ideas for human use. It
is an application of scientific ideas for mechanical use.
Despite the differences between science
and technology, they are interrelated in terms of symbiotic relationship.
Technology improves every day because of further scientific progress. In former
times people travel on foot or they by means of horses; today, you can have
your breakfast in Nigeria
and your dinner in the United
States. Formerly farming implements were
crude but today, we have mechanised system of farming. The use of X-ray was
discovered through scientific research and it has helped in various scientific
researches such that we can talk about certain behaviour within an atom instead
of talking about atoms as an indivisible elements – science helps technology to
improve while technology helps science in making further investigations.
Having said that, we can now say that
science is driven by curiosity. Scientists are curious to understand matter,
reality, chemical nature of the universe, the physical nature of the universe,
the basic nature of the universe, the biological component of the universe. On
the other hand, technology is driven by the desire to translate ideas and plans
into concrete product and process; the aim it to produce and not formulated
ideas or laws, hypothesis or theories. This is the function of science. The
ideas that are implemented by technology is formulated by scientists or they
are derived from science or even from non-science.
F Importance of science and technology.
The factor that distinguishes our age
and the past ages are science and technology – the increased space of
scientific and technological advancement which makes it our daily experience.
These advancements are noticeable in the political, social, religious and
communitarian aspects of human life.
Science has replaced the primitives implements once used with new ones.
F Science and Human Society.
Science and technology contributes to
the improvement in the society to the betterment of human life. It helps in the
increment of the quality of human life in all its ramifications – health
sector, transportation sector, etc. Science has helped in uniting the human
society. Beside these progresses,
science has its disadvantages though. Plane crashes kills more people than before
when we do not have airplanes. In the area of health, we now talk of abortion,
euthanasia. Then there is the problem of air pollution etc.
v
19/01/2010
F Science and Religion, Science and Development.
·
Science
-
Uses
empirical method of analysis
-
Quantitative
method
-
Descriptive
method
-
Believes
that the object of knowledge are sensible realities
-
It
operates with mathematical analysis and logic
-
Tries
to understand/explain and make predictions
-
Believes
that there is uniformity and regularity in nature.
·
Religion
-
Believes
that you can have knowledge of things that are not sensible
-
That
truth can be revealed
-
There
are metaphysical realities
-
Believes
in God, the unmoved mover
F
Origin of the world
·
Scientific theory
-
Big
bang theory
-
Evolutionary
theory
·
Religious Theory
-
Believes
that there is a superior power (God) that created the world – religious
creationism
-
Faith
is part of religious world views
-
Mysticism
-
Belief
-
Dogmatism
F
Relationship between science and religion
-
Some
scholars believes that science and religion are conflicting
-
Independent
-
Complementary
F
Science and Development
Attempts have been made to development in terms of
advancement in science and technology which implies material development.
However, does having material goods while the people are living in abject
poverty connote development? To what extent has science helps development? Is
there any relationship between science and development? What is development?
Development can be defined as an integral advancement
in human wellbeing. This implies that all aspects of the human person must be
taken into consideration – such includes; moral aspect, social, political and
material wellbeing. It also affects such things as peace, social harmony,
cohabitation between man and his neighbour. To consider development as purely a
material development leads to individualism, inequality, corruption,
subjugation, and it encourages oppression. Science and technology are therefore
just one aspect/factor of human development. Scientific advancement without
moral advancement turns to factors of human destruction.
v
26/01/2010
F
Environmental Degradation/Global Crisis
Through the development of science and technology
human beings have achieved tremendous progress in providing comfort for human
living. At the same time, these scientific and technological advancement have
created so many problems that threatens the human life such as global warming,
environmental degradation etc.
·
Global Crisis
Global crisis could be seen from physical, social,
moral and political angles. However, the physical crisis to global problem can
be demonstrated in terms of environmental degradation. How may we understand
this environmental degradation? It can be understood in so many ways because it
manifests itself through different forms such as air pollution, marine
pollution, military activities etc.
·
Air Pollution
Air pollution comes as a result of the burning of
anything, from the emission of toxic gas from motor vehicle’s exhaust pipes,
industrial, burning of fuel, waste refuses etc. These activities give rise to
air contamination which is not good for the human life. Pollution of air causes
acidic rain, global warming, depletion of the ozone layer etc.
·
Marine Pollution
This occurs through the dumping of waste refuses into
the water systems thereby contaminating the water we drink. Often the military
personnel tests their weapons underneath the sea. This equally leads to the
pollution of our water systems and the destruction of aquatic life.
·
Deforestation.
Deforestation reduces vegetation and this leads to
high temperature in the atmosphere. The deforestation of the environment
results in high rate of carbon dioxide accumulation in the air and less oxygen.
·
Military Security.
The use of bombs and other chemical military weapons
contributes to the problem of pollution of the environment. The consequences of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki are typical
examples of the harm of chemical weapons.
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