the meaning of the concepts science and technology and also the relationship between them.
Introduction
It
seems obvious that while various animals demonstrate some levels of curiosity,
it is only human beings that possess the skills of systematic organisation;
recording and application of knowledge, to enable them attain a harmonious
relationship with nature and the world around them. Hence,
science and technology exist because of such human ingenuity.
Consequently, this paper
attempts to present the meaning of the concepts science and technology and also
the relationship between them. We shall also consider the ways in which science
and technology is claimed to need philosophy. Furthermore, we shall consider
science and technology and human interest. Finally, we will discuss the impact
of Information Technology and Artificial Intelligence to our world view and
value system.
Conceptual Clarification
Science: The word “science” is derived from the Latin verb scire meaning “to
know” and from the noun Scientia, meaning “knowledge”. Thus, science, etymologically, means
knowledge. Science could be considered a body of empirical, theoretical and
practical knowledge about the natural world, through observation,
experimentation and prediction. Science deals with human’s understanding of the
real world, human beings, the inherent properties of space, matter, energy, and
their interactions. Though the usage of the word science generally
applies to a wide variety of disciplines or intellectual activities which have
certain features in common, it particularly refers to those disciplines that
are characterised by the possibility of making precise statements which are
susceptible to some sort of check or proof-empirical verification.[1] This however, distinguishes sciences from non
sciences and pseudo sciences. Science carries out this empirical verifiable
inquiry about reality through what is known as the scientific method.
Scientific Methods: Procedures
for attaining scientific knowledge are known as scientific methods. These
methods include formulating theories and testing them against observation or
experiment.[2]
Scientific methods are determined by the general nature of the objective in
view and by the nature of the subject matter. These methods are however
considered prerequisite to nearly every science in describing its subject
matter. Furthermore, the language of such description must be capable of
reproducing or recalling the subject matter with precision and uniqueness.
Technology: The
term “technology” is a combination of the Greek techne, meaning “art”, and logos,
meaning “word” or “discourse”.[3] In
English, it first denoted a discourse on an art or arts; later, it embraced the
scientific study of the practical and industrial arts and their methods. In philosophical
literature, the terms technology, technic (or technics), and technique are
differentiated. Aristotle defines technology as “a human arrangement of
technics - tools, sciences, and personnel - to make possible and serve the
attainment of human ends”.[4]
Martin Heidegger gives a broader concept of the term technology. He defines it
as the manufacturing and utilization of equipment, tools and machines. Technology
entails things manufactured; things used; and the needs and the ends they
serve. Simply put, for Heidegger technology is “a means and a human activity”[5]. Following
from the above conceptions, technology could be defined as the study,
development, and application of devices, machines and techniques for
manufacturing and productive processes.
Does Science and
Technology Need Philosophy?
History
has it that science used to be a branch of philosophy. The history of science
from the ancient Greeks to the present is the history of one compartment of
philosophy after another breaking away from philosophy and emerging as a
separate discipline. Thus, by the third century BC, Euclid’s work had made
geometry a ‘science of space’ separate from but still taught by philosophers in
Plato’s Academy.[6]
In 1859, the origin of species set biology apart from philosophy (theology).[7]
Newton’s revolution in the seventeenth century made physics a subject separate
from metaphysics.[8]
So science is the handmaid of philosophy. The fact that Science as a discipline
evolved from Philosophy makes people think that Science is somehow “better”
than Philosophy. But this is not true because there
would be no experimentation without an original observation. Philosophy, which begins from wonder, is the rational investigation into the
truths and principles of being, knowledge, and conduct. Science, on the other hand, inquires about
knowledge that seeks to answer the questions asked by philosophy. According to
Aristotelian concept, science is certain and evident knowledge obtained by
demonstration.[9]
Philosophy
deals with the whole body of knowledge and it encompasses all fields of
knowledge, which science is no exception. So, to ask whether science need
philosophy seems absurd because the scientific pursuit of knowledge is made
whole and granted secure foundation by philosophy. According to Einstein,
“…even if philosophy is not important to do everyday science, it certainly is
important when experience forces us to seek a newer and more solid foundation[10]. Philosophy
is of value to scientists not just for methodological reasons when they face
foundational problems, but also for theoretical and broader educational
reasons.
Science
makes a lot of presumptions and assumptions which purportedly rests on secure
foundation. Most of these, however, do not possess such strong foundation as
scientific culture would make us believe. Philosophy’s task in this is to
subject many of these presumptions and assumptions to the acid test of critical
judgment so as to reveal their shaky foundations and thus ensure that their
roots are thrust much deeper into more solid ground. This is the objective of
Philosophy of Science.
Whereas
science is the handmaid of philosophy, technology is the handmaid of science,
insofar as it emerges with the help of scientific researches and experiments.
The relation between science and technology has become paramount because of the
distinguishing features of modern technology, as compared to traditional forms
of technology, is that it is science-based. For Aristotle, science and
technology belonged to two different spheres of human experience (contemplation
versus productive action) and constituted two different forms of knowledge (theoretical
versus practical knowledge).[11]
Human beings have been considered to be
limited animals that are dependent on technology for their survival. Technology
has become the substitute for our biological shortcomings.[12] Thus, one of the tasks of philosophy, especially moral philosophy,
is to postulate true values that will ensure good conduct and peaceful
coexistence of humans with fellow humans, and humans with the rest of other
creation. This task is well concretized in the field of science and technology.
Science and technological advancement can easily become tools for destruction
in the world if not well guided by good human values, which philosophy attempts
to provide. The philosophy of technology deals with the nature of technology
and its effects on human life and society. Therefore, since Science cannot deny
Philosophy especially in the area of Metaphysics, and Technology cannot deny both
Science and Philosophy, it then follows that science and technology need
philosophy.
Relationship between Technology and artifacts
The
usual conception of technology is that it is the transformation or manipulation
of nature to satisfy human needs and goals. Technology is thus conceived to be
a specific form of purposeful (teleological) action, that may result in a
‘technological artifact’: a human-made object or state of affairs that fulfils
a utilitarian or practical function.[13]
The transformation of nature may or may not itself be mediated by artifacts,
which are then called tools. This conception of technology raises many
questions. On the one hand, it appears too restrictive, for it does not fit
certain domains which are considered to belong to modern technology, such as
software engineering which deals with the transformation of something
immaterial (information).[14]
On the other hand, it is too broad, since it makes any object or state of
affairs which satisfies a practical need, and is the result of intentional
human intervention in nature, a technological artefact. In this context lies the
demarcation problem, that is, what kind of action constitutes a technological
action and what kind of objects or states of affairs are technological artifacts?
Not only is the distinction between the
technological and the artificial, a problem, but also that between the artificial
and the natural. The latter raises fundamental philosophical issues about the
relation between the human race and nature. The distinction between the natural
and the artificial is commonly taken to be identical to the distinction between
the spontaneous and the intentional; these notions themselves, however, raise
all kinds of philosophical problems.[15]
Similar
questions arise when technological artifacts are characterized as objects that
perform practical functions on the basis of human designs. In technology a
design is taken to be a pattern or scheme that describes the structure and mode
of operation of a system and shows how a given practical aim or function may be
realized.[16]
The notion of design stresses the inherently intentional/teleological nature of
technological artifacts. The distinctive feature of technological artifacts as
compared to objects from nature remains a problem, however. Is the difference
primarily a genetic one (produced by
humans or by nature), or is it more fundamental in the sense that the
attribution of a design to objects of nature is meaningless (as in the modern
scientific conception of nature)? These questions inevitably lead to issues in
the philosophy of nature.
The Relationship between Experimental Science and Technology
Science
and Technology are correlated. Science has been very closely connected and involved with the development of
technology. The relationship between science and technology became more popular
after Archimedes developed his lever and pulley system to the clone sheep - Dolly.[17] Science is structure
built upon facts[18], which can be
deduced as the foundation from which technological innovations emanate. In a
sense technology could be regarded as applied science, since it is in
technology that the scientific theories that are produced through scientific
research and investigations are put into practical effect and used to produce
results. Thus, while pure science enables us to gain knowledge about the
contents, laws, functions and causal relationships between different aspects of
nature; applied science or technology as commonly called enables us to control,
influence and transform natural phenomena and objects in nature based on human
interests in order to suit our needs and purposes.[19]
Science systematically observes
natural events to see how they happen and under the conditions they happen in
order to discover facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based
on those facts. Now the
application of these laws and principles formulated from the facts for
practical purposes, especially in industry is called “Technology”. In
other words science put in practical use may be termed as technology.
Experimental science makes use of
specifically designed instruments / equipments for particular investigation in
order to attain a better result; and as such, the research science does often
bring about technological innovations.[20] Technology
has made better instruments that profoundly affected scientific theories. For
instance, the invention of the telescope by Galileo led to better astronomical
measurements which changed the idea of an earth-centred universe to the idea of
a Sun-centred universe. Again, Archimedes’ principle, which states that ‘a body
immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid’ led to the discovery of a high technology called ship and
submarine which float on the water surface because they are designed to
displace a weight of fluid equal to their own weight. For example a 10,000 ton
ship must be built wide enough to displace 10,000 tons of water.
Furthermore, another great impart
felt in our world today from the relationship between science and technology is
the operation of the steam engine which has brought about new innovations most especially
in the transportation and industrial systems. The science of thermodynamics
underlies the working of steam engines. The principle of thermodynamics states
that ‘energy can neither be created nor destroy, but can be change from one
form to another.’ Based on this principle, steam engine converts heat energy
into mechanical energy by allowing steam to expand in a cylinder which has a
movable piston that moves up and down to drive the wheel.[21]
From
the scientific knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties or contents
of objects different kinds of tools, machines, structures; such as buildings,
ships, aircrafts, cars, armament, electricity and electrical / electronic
products, agricultural equipments etc, have been invented and constructed. All
these structures constructed with the aid of scientific knowledge to control
nature and to serve humans’ need for transportation, shelter, clothing, drug
and medicine, food, communication, energy, sports, etc - and the skill,
instruments, equipments and the necessary know-how for achieving them make up
what is called “technology”.[22]
Our theoretical scientific knowledge
enables us to transform objects with the aid of technological devices to
produce what we need in industry and daily life. For example we use scientific
knowledge with the appropriate equipments to extract from crude oil the
following gas, diesel, gasoline, kerosene, lubricating oil, asphalt chemicals,
bitumen, etc. From plants, we get drugs; from wood, papers, chairs, tables are
manufactured.
Human Interests on The Basis of Science and Technology
Science in itself does not necessarily nor directly relate
with human interests. This is where Technology comes in. Technology is the
application of science.[23]
Scientific theories, on the other hand serve as a linking-point between
scientific methods and scientific knowledge. They are synonymous with science
because they are used to explain the irregularities and the essential relationships
between one phenomenon and another in the universe; and they enable us to form
a correct picture of the world and of events occurring within it.
Technology
being the application of science; takes from what science has learned and
applies it. For example, a scientist may spend years performing series of
stress tests on various metallic materials: Whereas, an inventor or an engineer
may just read over the published data from the scientist and use the scientific
knowledge [which is reliably proven] to build a magnificent building or bridge. Human interests, in all these include the
subjects that are been investigated using scientific methods, which in turn
depends on the person(s) who are using these methods, those who are funding it
[if it requires funding], the cultural interference, the applicable laws, among
other things. However, despite these connections, the scientific method is
removed from many of the human connections. Scientists are being taught to be
quantitative as opposed to being qualitative; to repeat tests and experiments
over and over beyond common sense; as well as to be unbiased observers, etc.
The fact that most people are unable or unwilling to be scientists testifies to
the degree of the ‘abstractness’ with which the scientific method is withdrawn
from normal human reasoning, and very often contradicts ‘common-sense’.[24]
Impacts of Human Interests: The impact of human interests on the
advancement of science and technology cannot be over emphasized. This notion
finds its bearing on the fact that the value of our scientific knowledge
depends to a high degree on the influences of human interests to which it
provides technological possibilities, that is the degree to which our
scientific knowledge can be useful in technological terms. In modern times
technological innovations have increased tremendously due to the utilization of
scientific knowledge and procedures stimulated by human interests towards the
realization of the practical aims of life. This is so widespread and intense to
the extent that technology has come to mean simply “the utilization of the results of science”,
in relation to human interests towards “the creation of useful products,
services and processes”. Thus, one can say that these three; human interests, technology
and science are separated from each other in a line, human interests being on
the far right, science being on the far left, and technology being a bridge
between the two. One of the key problems in this field is whether technological
development is primarily determined by its context (social shaping of
technology), or whether technology determines the social context including its
systems of norms and values. In the latter case, the idea of a technocratic society
emerges in which technological rationality imposes itself on all domains of
social life.[25]
Dimensions of Scientific Applications: Technological innovation has not only made new observations and
experiments possible but it has also transformed our experience and conception
of reality. These have brought about numerous inventions, which are meant to be
interpreted based on the behaviour of the respective device or instrument, that
is in terms of an understanding of how it works and not how it is used. Since
most inventions bring about new phenomena, data and subsequently change our
understanding of the world. Thus,
Whilst [Science and] Technology
transforms ends into means... we are often so overwhelmingly immense that we
are unable to cope with it as a means and, consequently, treat it as an end...
Modern Technology sets upon and challenges nature to disclose itself, unlock
and expose itself, as energy or resources for future use.[26]
However, the controversies
/ challenges surrounding most scientific experiments and inventions have often
misled many away from their enormous benefits in diverse fields of human endeavours.
The following are some examples:
-Stem Cell Research:
The benefits of stem cell usage in the treatment of serious diseases are well
documented and it is expected that continued research will pave the way for new
treatment methods.
-Space
Exploration: This has revolutionized the concept of science; by the
introduction of space-satellites, and even the possibility of establishing life
in other planets.
-Globalization:
through which technological-transfer has been aided, and more room for
improvement and new opportunities have equally been created in numerous areas
of human endeavours.
Information Technology and Artificial Intelligence:
Their Impact on Our World View and Value System
In
our modern world, we always strive for innovation. This is one of the many good
aspects of human beings, being ambitious. Even in the past, people aspire for
something great like robots, super computers and many more. Nowadays, our
aspirations have not changed much.
Artificial intelligence (AI) and Information Technology (IT) are part of
the promising inventions that some people are excited about. Many contend that
these will change the face of how we live our life.
Artificial
intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines. It is about designing machines
that seem to think like humans. Intelligence may be defined as the ability of
an individual to adapt his/her behaviour to new circumstances. Human
intelligence is not a single ability, but is rather a composition of abilities
like learning, reasoning, problem solving, perception and understanding of
language. Information Technology on the other hand, may be defined as a
technology that serves to generate, store, process and disseminate information
in various forms of media and formats age, sound, text, motion, pictures,
etc.).[27]
Indeed,
artificial intelligence finds applications in space exploration. Intelligent
robots can be used to explore space. They are machines and hence have the ability
to endure the hostile environment of the interplanetary space. They can be made
to adapt in such a way that planetary atmospheres do not affect their physical
state and functioning. Intelligent robots can be programmed to reach the
Earth's core. They can be used to dig for fuels. They can be used for mining
purposes. The intelligence of machines can be harnessed for exploring the
depths of oceans. These machines serve human so well especially where human
intelligence has serious limitations. They can even be used to detonate bombs;
thereby saving human life. More so, emotions that often intercept rational
thinking of a human being are not a hindrance for artificial thinkers. Though lacking
the emotional side, robots can think logically in accordance with the way they
are programmed, but not intuitively or creatively as humans and still make or take
the right decisions. Sentiments are associated with moods that affect human
efficiency. This is not the case with machines with artificial intelligence.
Thus artificial intelligence can be utilized in the completion of repetitive
and time-consuming tasks efficiently.[28]
Similarly,
information technology has made communication much easier in areas such as
chatting on Net, Facebook, Twitters, E-Mails, Video-Conferencing, just to
mention but a few. Nowadays, we can do so many things with the computer.
However,
one of the concerns regarding the application of artificial intelligence is
about ethics and moral values. Is it ethically correct to create replicas of human
beings? Do our moral values allow us to recreate intelligence? Intelligence is
after all a gift of nature. It may not be right to install it into a machine to
make it work for our benefit. The idea of machines replacing human beings
sounds wonderful; it helps to reduce stress and strain. But is it really such
an exciting idea? Imagine robots working in hospitals; can they show care,
empathy and concern towards patients as humans would? Thinking machines lack
minds. Human beings are emotional intellectuals - we think and feel. Our
feelings guide our thoughts. If robots begin to replace human beings in every
field, it may lead to unemployment. People will be left with nothing to do.
Empty time may result in its destructive use. Thinking machines will govern all
the fields and populate all positions pre-occupied by people.[29]
Apart
from all these issues, there is a fear of robots superseding us! Ideally human
beings should continue being the masters of machines. If things turn the other
way round, the world will turn into chaos. Intelligent machines may prove to be
smarter than us; they might enslave us and start ruling the world. Our greedy
creativity may endanger our life!
Similarly,
people spend lots of time on the computers and less time with their families
and friends. This affects relationships. What about the various degrees of
crimes, cybercrimes, deceits and misinformation that characterize the internet.
Hackers and crackers of codes and websites are on the increase. At times too,
we over rely so much on information posted on websites that cripple our
innovative skills. What about the abuse of copyrights and patent rights? In
fact, the insecurity that greets certain information that may be classified is
another serious issue.
Eventually,
in the face of all these, is our world better or worse? Certainly, there is no
ideal replacement for human beings. Artificial intelligence can help alleviate
the difficulties faced by humans, but they can never be “humans”. In the same
way, information technology should serve our needs. We should not become slaves
to it and abuse its use for the betterment of life.
Evaluation and Conclusion
In
this essay, we have attempted an articulated exposition of various discussions
about science and technology. In the first instance, we considered science as a
systematic, objective and reliable body of knowledge of the world and
ourselves. As such, science, being a systematic body of knowledge, has a
logical relation and inference from one element to the other. We equally discussed
technology as a process by which human beings intimately relate with nature[30]
through production of tools and machines. Thus, it could be claimed that both
science and technology hold each other with an absolute necessity. For while
science offers us knowledge about the contents, laws, functions and causal
relationships between various aspect of nature, technology enables us to
control, influence and transform natural phenomena and objects for human uses. In
other words, technology is an applied science.[31]
Furthermore,
we also showed that science and technology need philosophy. Though, many denied
such relationship under the pretext that philosophy and science are concerned
with two different domains and methods, yet the relationship seems obvious. In the
first analysis, it should be noted that “science grew out of philosophy”[32]
and by implication, the
critical and rational character of philosophy is running through the system of
science and technology.[33]
And this helps science in its quest for objective, rational and systematic
knowledge about the universe.
Furthermore,
we expounded on various ways in which science and technology is of interest to
the society. Perhaps, there would have been no changes between the world of
today and that of three centuries ago if necessity and quest for new
discoveries had not driven men and women to achieve great things as they had
done. As a result of these discoveries, human beings are able to understand,
explain and predict the course of nature and natural phenomena. In this way, a
systematic, objective and rational body of knowledge about nature is developed.
The knowledge, however, equips the society with the know-how, which enables it
to transform the world and build the massive technology and industry.[34]
Moreover,
in modern times human technical knowledge has increased tremendously due to the
utilization of pure scientific knowledge and procedures towards the realisation
of practical aims of life. This is so widespread and intense that technology
has come to mean simply “the utilization of the results of science”, instead of
being just “the creation of useful products and processes.”
More
still, we indicated that science and technology has another effect in the area
of communication and the use of artificial intelligence. Their use has resulted
in the advancement of communication and expansions of economic commerce. Thus,
any institution worth its name must have Information Technology / Artificial
Intelligence in place to be really outstanding. Through them, work performances
are boosted with less effort and greater productivity.[35]
For instance, many jobs better suited for computers have decreased errors and
increased efficiency. In America, the use of detecting credit card fraud is an
example. This system is more accurate and faster than when done by a human
being. These and many other infinite possibilities exist in using artificial
intelligence to increase efficiency.
However,
along with this progress in technology are some challenges. This could be seen
from the aspect that our increase in the use of Information Technology /
Artificial Intelligence technologies would decrease job opportunities thereby rendering
many people unemployed. The implication of this for the society is obvious.
Although Information Technology / Artificial Intelligence are efficient, they
are also limited because
they have no minds and possess no emotions, they could cause more harm
than good in certain areas of human interests. Consequently, they can never replace
human beings.
Science and
technology in nigeria
The etymology of
the word
Mind
[1] Cf. Hill McGraw,
“Science”, Encyclopedia of Science and Technology,
vol. 12, (1960, 1966 ed.), p. 71.
[2] Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Philosophy of Science (London: New York
Press, 1998), p. 399.
[3] Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Philosophy of Science (London: New York
Press, 1998), p. 443.
[4] W. F. Hood, In Philosophy and Technology: Readings in the
Philosophical Problems of Technology edited by C. Mitcham and R. Mackey
(New York: Free Press, 1983), pp. 347-63.
[5] Martin Heidegger, The Question Concerning Teaching and other
Essays, translated by W. Lovitt, (New York: Humanities, 1977), pp. 4-5.
[6] Alex Rosenberg, Philosophy of
Science: A Contemporary Introduction (New York: Routledge, 2005), p. 2.
[7] Alex Rosenberg, Philosophy of
Science: A Contemporary Introduction, p. 3.
[8] Alex Rosenberg, Philosophy of
Science: A Contemporary Introduction, p.3.
[9] Antonio Moreno, Science and Philosophy (Illonios: River
Forest Press, 1960), pg. 9.
[10] Desidério Murcho, Does Science need Philosophy? (London:
King’s College Press, 1998), p.50
[11] Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Philosophy of Science (London: New York
Press, 1998), p. 398
[12] Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Philosophy of Science (London: New York
Press, 1998), p. 445.
[17] Cf. Sahotra Sarkar and
Jessica Pfeifer (ed.) The Philosophy of
Science an Encyclopedia (New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 272.
[18] Alan Chalmers, What is this thing called Science? 2nd
ed., (St. Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1982), p.1.
[19] Cf. T. Uzodimma Nwala,
(ed.) History and Philosophy of Science
(Nsukka: Niger Books and Publishing Co. Ltd, 1997), p.131.
[20] Cf. Sahotra Sarkar and
Jessica Pfeifer, The Philosophy of
Science an Encyclopedia, p. 272.
[21]Cf. Raymond H. Merritt, Technology Microsoft Encarta 2009. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation,
2008.
[22] Cf. T. Uzodimma Nwala,
(ed.) History and Philosophy of Science
(Nsukka: Niger Books and Publishing Co. Ltd, 1997), p.8.
[23] Alan Chalmers, What is this thing called Science? 2nd
ed., (St. Lucia: University of Queensland, 1982), p.1.
[24] Cf. T. Uzodimma Nwala,
(ed.) History and Philosophy of Science
(Nsukka: Niger Books and Publishing Co. Ltd, 1997), p.130.
[25] Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Philosophy of Science, p. 444.
[26] Karl Rogers, On the Metaphysics of Experimental Physics
(Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 14.
[27] Manali Oak, Pros and Cons of Artificial intelligence,
http://www.buzzle.com/article/pros-and-cons-of-artificial-intelligence.html
(20
April, 2015).
[28] Manali Oak, Pros and Cons of Artificial intelligence,
http://www.buzzle.com/article/pros-and-cons-of-artificial-intelligence.html
(20
April, 2015).
[29] Cf. Pollock John, “My Brother, the Machine’’ In Nous vol.22
No 2, Meneth M. Sayre, A Philosophical
Study of Minds and Machines (New York: Random House, 1988) pp.173-210.
[30] Routledge Enclopedia of Philosophy of Science, p. 444.
[31] Cf. T. Uzodimma Nwala,
(ed.) History and Philosophy of Science
(Nsukka: Niger Books and Publishing Co. Ltd, 1997), p. 8.
[32] Routledge Enclopedia of Philosophy of Science, p. 394.
[33] Einstein pointed out
that philosophy is invaluable and useful for the workings of the scientists;
especially when research pushes them to the boundaries of science. This implies
for Einstein that rational enquiry is still possible even in the absence of clear-cut
methods of enquiry. Revista Eletronica Informacao e Cognicao, v.5, n2,
p.53.
[34] Hermes
Trismegistos (1500BC) also visualised a world in which man used his knowledge
to create a life free of disease, want and possibly death. The modern versions
of this view have been well expressed by Francis Bacon and Karl Marx, among
others.
[35] Cf. “Science and
Technology” StudyMode.com (April
2015) http://www.studymode.com/essays/science-And-Technology-1472220.html.
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