THEOLOGY OF LITURGY
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20/10/2011
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General
Introduction
ü
What
is Liturgy?
The liturgy is defined as the official
worship of the church. It is official because it has to do with the character
of the church that is public. It is a worship that is public. It is not private
and it is performed by those ordained because they represent the church.
Pope
Pius XII in his encyclical Mediator Dei, define the liturgy as
“The
public worship which our Redeemer as head of the Church renders to the Father,
as well as the worship which the community of the faithful renders to its
founder, and through him to the heavenly Father.’ It also defines liturgy as
“an exercise of the priestly worship of Jesus Christ” as “the whole public
worship performed by the Mystical Body of Jesus Christ, that is by the Head and
his members,” as ‘an action of Christ the Priest and his Body which is the
Church.
A
more comprehensive definition of the liturgy by Sacrosanctum Concilium includes
the basic concept of the presence of Christ in the celebrations of the Mass, the
sacraments, the word of God, and the divine office. Sacrosanctum Concilium also
calls the liturgy ‘culmen et fons’: the liturgy is the submit towards which the
activities of the church is directed, at the same time, it is the fount from
which all the Church’s power flows. The liturgy is the exercise of the priestly
office of Jesus Christ (N.7). This implies that whenever we take part in the
liturgy, it is not our own, it belongs to Christ. As a consequence, all our
faculties must be in tune with what we are celebrating.
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What
is theology?
A
classical definition of theology comes to us from the eleventh century monk and
theologian, Saint Anselm. For him, theology is faith seeking understanding.
Edmond Dunn in his book “What is Theology” opines that theology is a critical
approach to religious faith and practice.[1]
Theology attempts to clarify, broadens, deepen, and enliven the mysterious
something within us, within our communities and within our relationship.[2] The
idea of the study of theology tells us how God affects every aspect of our
lives. In other words, theology permeates every aspect of our existence.
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27/10/2011
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Understanding
Liturgical Theology
We
shall be appealing to biology for our understanding of liturgical theology. The
Orthodox Church refers to the church that follows the teaching of Christ as
well as other administrative personnel. This means that Orthodox Church has its
life and teaching centered on Christ – it is Christocentric (SC 7); it is the
body of Christ. The Holy Spirit leads the church – thus Holy Spirit who dwells
among the faithful and since the church is the body of Christ, the liturgical
worship of Christ becomes central to the Church. That is why SC 10, says that
‘the liturgy is ‘Culmen et Fons’ of all the activities of the church.
To
understand theological liturgy, we shall use biological classification of
anatomy and physiology to explain it. These terms enables us to understand the
structure and functions of liturgical worship. In biological science, anatomy
is the study of the structure and the relationships of the structures to each
other. One can investigate an individual structure within the body, for example,
the jaw-bone. One can also examine several structures together, for example,
the skull (which contains the brain etc) to determine their relationships.
Biological
classification also deals with how each structure relates to one another. In
this light therefore, it is also possible to think of liturgical theology as an
anatomy of worship or structure of worship. Hence we are able to study the
structures of worship and determine their importance in the life of the church.
Just
as in biology, the anatomical aspects or the structural aspects of liturgical
theology are manifested in many different ways. One aspect of the liturgical
theology involves the study of basic structure or the rubrics of worship
services (the rubrics are the liturgical laws usually written in red colour
which serves as the guidelines for the liturgical celebrations). For example,
we can learn the structure of the liturgy of hours or the Eucharist.
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The
Structure of the Liturgy of Hours
1.
The invocation – “O Lord
our lips”
2.
The invitatory antiphon –
Psalms 94, 100, 24, 96
3.
Opening hymn
4.
Psalmody (Canticle of
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel)
5.
Reading
6.
Short responsory
7.
Benedictus
8.
Intercessory
9.
Pater Noster
10.
Conclusion prayer
11.
Dismissal
These
are the structure of the liturgy of hours. We can also study the structure of
liturgical worship and compare it with other structures. For example, one can
study Lauds and Vespers to see their differences and similarities in structure
and rubrics. Just as there is the study of comparative anatomy, there is also
the study of comparative liturgical theology. In comparative anatomy, we may
study the leg bone of a human being and compare it with that of a cow or a goat
by looking for similarities and differences.
In
liturgical theology, one can dissect the divine liturgy of St. John Chrysostom
(Divine liturgy is also known as the Eucharist in the Eastern Church) and study
it in relation to the anatomy of the Coptic Orthodox Liturgy of St. Basil,
looking for the similarities in structure. We can also dissect the Tridentine
Mass of 1570 of Pope Pius V with the 1970 Order of Mass of Paul VI
Anatomy
of liturgy unlike the structure of liturgy emphasizes more on the functionality
of the different structures of liturgy. The problem we have here is that people
pay more attention to the structure and rubrics, rule of liturgy but the spirit
of the liturgy is not emphasized and this causes problem in the church. People
sit, clap, and kneel at liturgical celebrations just to fulfill the rules or
the rubrics without really understanding why they perform these actions.
In
biological science, physiology is the study of the functions and activities of
living organisms. One can study anatomy for years but the true beauty of that
science is only made relevant in the light of the understanding of the
physiology (that is, the functions). A structure cannot stay without a
function. A structure does not become important until it is functioning. Example,
one can study the anatomy of the heart on both the gross and microscopic
levels. But to truly understand the heart, one must also learn its functions
within the body, likewise within liturgical theology. To truly understand the
beauty of liturgical worship, one must understand their functions within the
body of Christ.
Therefore,
the liturgical theology cannot just function on symbolic or structural or
anatomic level, it must give theological meaning to the worship. One of the
aspects of the liturgical worship is to transform the world and make it the
kingdom of God on earth. Liturgical theology makes the life and worship of the
Church an icon of the kingdom of heaven and so it refers to the Church militant
on earth and we are not separated from the kingdom of heaven but rather through
our worship and through the power of the Holy Spirit, we are worshipping with
the Church triumphant that lives and dwells with the Holy Trinity. Through
liturgical worship, the church on earth is made integral part of the great
cosmic church on the universal church. Going further, liturgical theology makes
the Paschal Mystery a real event for us so that we can participate. For example,
the celebration of the sacrament of baptism should not be seen as just
initiation in the church but rather it should be seen as our participation in
the death and resurrection of Christ (Cf. Col 2:12-13, Romans 6:3-4, Jn 3:
1-8).Liturgical theology also allows us understand how all of the worships
relates to those who gather for the cooperate worship of the Church.
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The
Role of the Holy Spirit
It
is the Holy Spirit, manifesting himself in and through the church that gives
function and meaning to the liturgical worship and calls us to be active
participants and not observers.
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3/11/2011
The
Holy Spirit allows us to partake in the life of Christ and the salvific gifts
which Christ has won for us through his Life, Death and Resurrection. The Holy
Spirit therefore is very important in the life of the church because He is and
continues to be the live-wire of the church. Liturgical theology allows us to
expound the faith and doctrines of the church. It also takes liturgical worship
and hymnography of the church and uses it as a powerful means to expound and
understand the teachings and doctrines of the church. Liturgical theology and
hymnography are therefore means of explanation and understanding of the
doctrines and teachings of the church.
Take
the hymn “For we are one in the love of Christ” for instance. This hymn
expresses our oneness in Christ and at the same time portrays Pauline theology.
According to St. Paul we are one in Christ through baptism. We died to sin when
we were baptized and through baptism also we were raised to life through
Christ’s own resurrection. Another example is the hymnography associated with
Pentecost. It is filled with the theology of the Holy Spirit.
Just
as an anatomy and physiology gives us the understanding of the form and
function of human life, likewise liturgical theology gives us the understanding
of the form and functions of worship in the church. This helps us to live with
Christ in the heavenly kingdom here on earth. Lastly, just as in any living
organism without organized structure there is no function, and without
structure and function there is no life, so also in the liturgy. Without
structure and function, there is no life in the church and without life in the
church there is no celebration or salvation
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What
is Liturgical Theology?
Liturgical
theology is all about the theological understanding of the liturgy. This is
meant as the idea of God behind every liturgical celebration in the Church.
This area of concern is a great departure from the past and it brings in new freshness
into the liturgical life of the church. Both liturgy and theology is enriched
by one another especially when theology goes beyond liturgy per se, as
spiritual life. Liturgy can then be said to be the means through which theology
exercises its influence in the lives of the people.
Hence
the liturgy brings about true doctrines of worship whereby the believing
community asserts its faith through acts of worship. Without a doubt, the
liturgy which is the source of the church’s teaching constantly delves into
theology for a deeper understanding of the reality it celebrates. Therefore
worship is closely bound to theology.
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Historical
Perspective of liturgical theology
Looking
at history of theology in terms of liturgical theology, this has a little
account and it is a problem in the modern times. But if theology of liturgy is
looked upon from the realm of the efforts on the part of all Christian
generations in reflecting on the meaning of worship and to understand the
relationship between faith and praxis or practice, then historical overview is
very long and complex.
ü First Phase
The
first phase that can be considered begins with the enquiry about the term
‘liturgy.’(See definition). In liturgical worship, there is a difference
between spiritual and ritual worship. In the past there was emphasis on ritual
worship but today the theology of liturgy we are looking at now is emphasising
spiritual worship. It was the New Testament that receives the new aspect of
spiritual worship although they follow the prophetic tradition of the Old
Testament. The New Testament therefore spiritualises our worship. It took the
prophetic tradition and transformed it into spiritual rhythm.
So
we can say that the liturgical worship in the church is all about continuity
with language and rituals of the Old Testament. There are two key-words that we
have to take note of – assimilation and integration. This two are applicable to
the idea of spiritualizing the rituals of the Old Testament. For instance,
baptism among the aged – they take people to the water (river) and it serves as
a kind of purification. This was practiced by John the Baptist. When Christ
came into the scene however, he gave baptism a new interpretation. He
spiritualized the former idea of purification that they practiced in the Old
Testament.
The
Biblical understanding or theological outlook on worship brings about the
awareness of unbreakable relationship linking rites to covenantal history which
have to do with the Israelites and the way God spoke to them. So the rite we
celebrate today is linked back to the people of Israel and shows that liturgy
and Bible are interwoven together. From this association there are two
consequences that we can see:
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17/11/2011
1.
The rite does not replace
life which is called to be covenant in its encounter with God.
2.
The rite refers entirely to the reality of the
covenant. From this, worship becomes a place of contact where persons
communicate with God rather than performance of where persons go to act. In
every celebration within liturgical framework, there are two dimensions:
a.
Historical Dimension. Historical
dimension has to do with the fundamental connection of the liturgy with
salvation history from biblical or scriptural account. For instance to find the
historical dimension of baptism, one has to go back to the scripture.
b.
Community Dimension. This
is all about the ritualisation of the covenant. That is, having the people as
subject of the community. For example, God entering into covenant with the
Israelites but today we talk of Jesus and the new people of God sharing the
Eucharist and the Eucharist has become the covenant God has with his people. So
when we gather together for the liturgy, we gather to re-enact the memorial of
Christ’s saving mystery. This is actulised within the framework of the liturgy.
:
Israel – Jesus (Eucharist) after Calvary as means of entering into the new and
eternal covenant until it is consummated in the heavenly Jerusalem.
3.
Mystery-based Dimension. Mystery-based
dimension talks about the modality in the Old and New Testament of the
appearance of saving event in celebration. This is achieved through the
believing community opening itself to accept the salvific event onward to
eschatology, the new and definitive realities of history.
ü
Second
Phase
The
second phase talks about the emergence symptom of regression. This concerns a
shift from the theological understanding of the connection between faith and
worship; between life and worship, between the characteristics of the Patristic
age to less theological understanding, allegorizing, ascetical and moralistic
in nature. Nevertheless, there was progress in the areas of cultic and ritual
elements of rites, prayer, feast etc.
These
elements (rites, prayers and feasts), became sources of liturgical practices
and Christian community’s experience of Christian’s church’s life and nature
experience. Hence, on this level, liturgy now becomes the manifestation of the
faith of the church that has become part of time and history. Liturgy as an
event realizes the mystery of Christ in giving birth to the church.
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Liturgical
Science.
Liturgical
science is understood as the science of rubrics which means the systematic
compilation of the norms guiding worship within liturgy. It is the scientific
study of the rites, symbols and actions that are involved in the worship of the
church. Liturgical science relates to the theological, spiritual, historical,
aesthetical and canonical aspect of the liturgy and its parts of the Holy Mass,
sacramental celebration of the sacraments, liturgy of hours and liturgical
years. The sources of liturgical science are the liturgical books, decrees and
responses of the congregation of rites. It is therefore a study of grammar and
syntax so that liturgical rules might be correctly applied.
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Aim
of Liturgical Science
The
aim of liturgical science is to impart knowledge and appreciation of the
worship of the Church so as to create a liturgical spirit that will lead to a
full conscious and active participation in the liturgy.
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Methodology
of Liturgical Science.
The
methodology of liturgical science lies in the study of both the present and
past rites to arrive at their proper understanding. It also involves the
interpretation of the forms of worship by making use of different keys like the
relationship between liturgy and cultures, between liturgy and pastoral
application, between liturgy and comparative study of rites in different
Churches, the relationship between the text and gestures and formulation of the
faith and liturgy. We form our faith by reading and taking part in sacramental
life of the Church.
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Two
divisions of Liturgical Science.
Liturgical
science can be broadly divided into two:
1.
General or Fundamental
liturgy.
By this we mean the notions, definitions,
relationships between liturgy and the Christian life and everything that refers
to the liturgy as a whole.
2.
Special Liturgy.
By this we mean a focus on one part of the
whole. For example, the study of the liturgical year, rubrics, texts etc. There
are other divisions of liturgical science that the liturgy relates with such
as:
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Dogmatic
theology.
Dogmatic theology provides an indication
of the true realities celebrated in the liturgy. In fact, the liturgy is the
source of the church’s teaching on dogmatic theology.
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Moral
theology
Moral theology provides the principle for
spiritual growth that can be attained through worship while liturgy indicates
the specific ways in which this growth can be attained.
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Scripture
The scripture provides the content for the
liturgical text and notes including the principles of interpretation being
used. While the liturgy makes the Bible intelligible to the people gathered for
worship bringing the Word of God to the people today.
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Canon
Law
The Canon Law provides the principles for
the interpretation of the liturgical laws while the liturgy details the
liturgical laws that govern all its rites. In all, liturgical science can then
be understood as a genuine theological reflection on worship in the Church.
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Sacrosanctum
Concilium
We are going to start by looking at the
premise which will help us to understand what Sacrosanctum Concilium has to
offer with regards to its outlook on the theology of liturgy.
·
Sacrosanctum Concilium
does not contain speculative theology. It talks about the essential things with
respect to the liturgy.
·
It is a reflection on the
content of celebrative action so as to grasp its nature as mystery within
liturgical celebration. It has been worked upon by liturgical tradition and the
Patristic tradition and liturgical movements.
·
These two premises about
non-speculative and reflection on the content of celebrative action means that
the liturgy is the summit and source (Culmen et Fon) of the whole activity of
the Church (SC 10) whereby the salvation mystery is made present as well as the
Paschal Mystery of Christ. This is more synthetic,
·
The second doctrine is
that the liturgy is all about ecclesiology of communion, which is the gathering
of the people of God together to worship or offer the sacrifice of the Cross.
These two where derive from the fact of the 1st and 2nd
premise.
Sacrosanctum Concilium makes use of words
and sacrament that are mutually dependent on each other. The Word of God in a
sacrament and the Eucharist. In as much as the Word of God is a sacrament all
the sacraments are actuation of the word of God (SC 24).
It explains the need for liturgical reform
and interpretation and the call for this reform by asking the Church to re-signify,
redesign and to look into how the sacraments are celebrated now and how it is
to be celebrated. This is a liturgical renewal. In this renewal, the
anthropological and cultural nature should be looked into. In speaking
therefore about the theology of liturgy, Sacrosanctum Concilium explains better
how liturgy is placed within the life of the Church and how it can be shared as
a true sign of the Church (SC. 26 – 32, 33 – 36 and 37 – 39); these are
criterion for liturgical reforms. 26 say that the liturgy is private function
but a sacrament of the Church. This liturgical reform or renewal has to do more
on cultic and ritual practice of the Church. This reform is expressed in the
action of God in Christ now given to the people of God in the Church through
liturgical celebration (SC. 6 and 7, 2, 5 and 48).
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Outline
of Liturgical Theology in Sacrosanctum Concilium
There three basic outlines:
1.
Why do we celebrate?
2.
Why is it necessary to
celebrate/ what does the Christian community celebrate?
3.
How do we celebrate?
Sacrosanctum Concilium number 7 has this
to say:
“To
accomplish so great a work, Christ is always present in his Church, especially
in her liturgical celebrations. He is present in the sacrifice of the Mass not
only in the person of his minister, ‘the same now offering, through the
ministry of priests, who formerly offered himself, on the cross’, but
especially in the Eucharistic species. By his power he is present in the
sacraments so that when anybody baptizes it is really Christ himself who
baptizes. He is present in his word since it is he himself who speaks when the
holy scriptures are read in the Church. Lastly he is present when the Church
prays and sings, for he has promised ‘where two or three are gathered together
in my name there am I in the midst of them’ (Mt. 18; 20).
“Christ,
indeed, always associates the Church with himself in this great work in which
God is perfectly glorified and men are sanctified. The Church his beloved Bride
who calls to her Lord and through him offers worship to the eternal Father.’
The
liturgy, then, is rightly seen as an exercise of the priestly office of Jesus
Christ. It involves the presentation of man’s
sanctification under the guise of sign perceptible by the senses and its
accomplishment in ways appropriate to each of these signs. In it full public
worship is performed by the Mystical Body of Jesus Christ, that is, by the Head
and members. From this it follows that every liturgical celebration, because
it is an action of Christ the Priest and of his Body, which is the Church, is a
sacred action surpassing all others. No other action of the Church can equal
its efficacy by the same title and to the same degree.”
In this definition of the
liturgical celebration, it is very clear that the Christian reality or faith we
celebrate is found in the action that is carried out. Faith is very necessary
to establish the truth of the liturgical actions in the Church. If there is no
faith, you will end up carrying out liturgical actions mechanically or like a
robot. It is faith that makes one believe and understand why you have to do
things the way the Church wants it. Liturgical theology is intrinsically ordered
towards the events of revelation under the aspect of ritual and symbols which
signifies the presence and history of the mystery being celebrated in the
liturgy.
With regards to faith
being necessary there is also need to pay attention to the philosophical,
anthropological and phenomenological sciences that investigate the religious
action of the people within the liturgical celebration.
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Why
do we celebrate?
The way of celebrating or
why it is necessary to celebrate consists in the enquiry on religious
experience. This religious experience needs to be communicated though it is
unconditional, personal and self manifested. It needs to be communicated
through specific language that is symbolic language and ritual action. In other
words, we celebrate because it is the action of Christ. He was the one who
first celebrated. A befitting example to why it is necessary to celebrate could
be found in the sermon of St. Augustine in his sermon 272 titled “Sermon in die
Pentecoste ad infants, de sacramentis” meaning, “Sermon on the day of Pentecost
on the sacrament to the infants.” This
is a sermon St. Augustine gave to neophytes who were about to receive First
Holy Communion. In this sermon, St. Augustine tries to explain to them the
mystery into which they have been introduced namely the Eucharist. He says:
“You are the body of Christ…if therefore
you are the body of Christ and its members and your mystery is placed on the
Lord’s Table, then, receives your mystery. To that which you are, say Amen.”
Here St. Augustine is
offering a meaningful understanding of mystery action. It is not an ordinary
action rather it is a very celebrative one and it is full of mystery.
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What
does the Christian community celebrate?
This is the centre of theology of liturgy.
This has to do with what the Christian believe and what he or she celebrates.
It is the question of understanding the concrete liturgical practice as related
to the celebrated faith within the liturgy by the Christian community. This
means that the celebration is with the liturgy and that the continuum will
affect our daily lives. The Christian liturgical celebration consists in bringing
the gift of Jesus Christ to the life of every Christian. This gift of Jesus
Christ can be named ‘mystery’. This is the centre of celebration and this is
what the Christian community celebrates. The mystery being celebrated in the
liturgy is inseparable from the salvation of Jesus Christ as culminated.
1.
This mystery we are
talking about has a historical and salvific nature and structure.
2.
Sacrosanctum Concilium 5
– 7 requires us to investigate into the salvation history in other to fully
understand the overall plan in terms of celebration within liturgy. For us to
understand the salvation history expressed in celebration, we must turn to
“word and action” in which symbolic language and celebrative action are related
to religious experience.
3.
This has to do with the
understanding of the presence of salvation history in the liturgy.
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The
Three Dimensions of the Liturgy
Consequently the liturgical actions
carried out in the Church have the following dimensions.
1.
Anamentic dimension – (Memorial
Dimension). This has to do with recalling all that Christ did, especially at
the Last Supper. It is projected by the anticipation we have.
2.
Proleptic dimension – this
has to do with anticipation. By this it meant that we anticipate a lot of
things in the liturgy. This anticipation gives us hope of what awaits us at the
end of our life on earth.
3.
Doxological dimension –
that is the dimension of praise and worship, and thanksgiving in the liturgy.
4.
Epiclectic dimension –
this has to do with the invocation of the Holy Spirit on the gift (Bread and
Wine) or on the persons involved in the celebration
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How
do we celebrate?
We
celebrate with life body. That is, with the totality of ourselves and being
with all the faculties and everything that is in us. This is done within time
and space. Liturgical time with reference to how to celebrate. It is a time
lived as a celebrative encounter between human beings and the salvation events
that is historical. Hence, it is the historic salvific nature of the mystery
that the liturgy celebrates that gives meaning to the relationship between time
and liturgy. The mystery embedded in the person of Christ and those actions
that are salvific that gives meaning between time and liturgy.
Liturgical
times celebrate the mystery of Christ in a festive mood. It also opens the way
for an encounter between human beings and God. Therefore the liturgy upon
reflecting on Christ’s life makes every Christian life through the Church. For
example, when we celebrate Sunday, we celebrate the resurrection of the Lord
and the Paschal Mystery of the Church; while the liturgy of hours sanctifies
the day.
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Time
Liturgy
is a special time that spiritually suspends the flow of time. We encounter
Christ in the liturgy when we gather together. Liturgical time celebrates the
mystery of Christ in a festive mood. Hence liturgy opens the way for an
encounter between man and God. Therefore reflecting upon liturgy, the life of
Christ makes the life of every man holy through the church. we encounter the
life of Christ especially on Sundays when we celebrate the liturgy but also in
the liturgy of the hours.
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Space
On
liturgy and space we refer to the relationship between the structure of
salvation and the structure of liturgical celebration. This salvation is also
realized in space that human beings have embarked to live and to celebrate in
it. In the liturgy, space has to do with Church, with their structure, their
furnishings, occupying space and telling us more about the mystery of Christ.
The dedication of Churches, the mystery, the tabernacle can be seen as
liturgical space.
This space when it is occupied denotes the
nature and function of each person and of the whole assembly. Of course we also
talk of dedication of altars as well as when the sacrifice of the Mass will be
celebrated. This altar will only be made use of by a priest. However, we should
note that the people of God are the time and space and the time place where
salvation event is sacramentally effected.
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How
to Celebrate
On how to celebrate – we
also refer to the liturgical actions which consists of words, gestures, sound,
silence, movements, signs, symbols and these elements are the liturgical ways
of experiencing and having a share in the mystery of salvation which comes to
us from God himself. We also have the word of God translated in music and
signing – SC 112. We also have the word of God translated also in form of
dialogue – referring to word and response.
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Liturgical
Year – Sacrosanctum Concilium 102 – 111; CCC 1163 - 1178
Liturgical
year means understanding the cosmic time and human life. Our human life is
tired to the cosmic environment we find ourselves. In geography, the earth
course around the sun creating what we call the year. The circuit which the
moon makes round the year translates into a month as 29 and half (291/2)
days – 30 days and because of this circuit of the moon, we experience the
brightness and the darkness of the day. We also experience the passage of the
year with the Christian ritual and so we have four (4) seasons: summer, winter,
spring and autumn and they play vital role in determining the various
liturgical celebration of the year.
Understanding
the Christian liturgical year means understanding the Jewish liturgical
festivals and that is why the Passover of Christ (Paschal Mystery) is closely
linked with the Jewish feast. Among the Jews they begin their celebration in
the eve preceding the following day. We have pre-festive Mass on Saturday
evening before Sunday Mass.
The general idea of liturgical year is
referring to the various ways the Church has been able to spread out seasons of
the year. In other words, the liturgical year is Christ’ mystery – his birth,
life, death and resurrection……….
When we talk about liturgical year we also
talk of human existence, time and environment. They play vital role in the
liturgical year. It also involves the revolvment of the sun and the …. In other
words, liturgical year is not celebrated in isolation of the environment.
Sometimes you may have difficulty of celebrating the same season around the
world but it nevertheless affect the Church.
This is embraced in the Jewish festival
year. Therefore the Jewish festival year influenced the liturgical year. In
other words, you must have understood the Jewish feast before you understand
the Jewish Paschal mystery. For instance, the Passover of the Jews has its
culmination in Christ’s passage from this life to glory of heaven. The
Pentecost equally has its root in the Jewish feast of the yeast. There are
three observations on how the Jews celebrate their feast which affects
Christian celebration too.
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Sabbath
The
word Sabbath comes from the Hebrew word “Shabbat”, which means rest, to leave
off. This implies keeping oneself off from daily activities. For the Jews, the
Sabbath is very important. It is the end and crown of the seven day work. On
the day of Sabbath, there is movement of cars, no light, and no work. Everyone
moves to the synagogue for the celebration of the Sabbath. It is a day when
they listen to the word of God. It is a day for holy convocation and an
appointed day for the celebration of the Lord. The Sabbath is central to every
Jew as their life is centered on it. It is a day when the people gather to
listen to the word of God. it is closely connected to God’s resting after creating
the world for six days – Exodus 20: 8-11; Deuteronomy 5: 14 – 15; Exodus 23: 12
F
The
Great Feasts of the people of Israel
The
great feasts of the people of Israel include:
1.
The Passover – Exodus 12:
1-28; 13: 8-10
2.
The feast of unleavened
bread
The feast of the Passover and the feast of
unleavened bread has been seen as the source of reformation after the exile. It
has become a historical commemoration in memory of the account of salvation. This
feast reminds us of the salvation God gave them from the land of Egypt to the
Promised Land. Any time they celebrate this feast, they have a strong feeling
of the redemptive act of God in their lives. This feast enables them to see
their corroboration in God’s redemptive action.
F
Feast
of Wheat
The feast of Wheat is the feast of
thanksgiving for the wheat harvested. This feast was later named the feast of
Pentecost. – Tobith 2: 2 and Leviticus 23: 15: 21
·
Feast of Shelter –
Leviticus 23: 33 – 66; Deuteronomy 16: 13 – 15
·
The feast of haunts and
joy in the Torah – Leviticus 23: 23-25, Numbers 29: 1-6
·
New Year Feast –
Leviticus 23: 23 – 25; Numbers 29: 1 – 6
·
Feast of atonement – Leviticus
16
·
Dedication of the Temple
– 1 Maccabbees 4: 48 – 51; 56 and 59
·
Feast of Purium – Easther
9: 19; 10: 13
·
Feast of national
mourning –
·
Israel’s Independent
National Day – May 14, 1948. This feast remembers:
1.
The destruction of
the first temple in 586 BC
2.
The destruction of the
second temple in 70 AD
3.
The crushing of the
Jewish rebellion against Rome in 135 AD
4.
The expulsion of the Jews
from Spain in 14892
F
The
Paschal Mystery of Christ as the Heart of Liturgical Year.
The heart of the liturgical year is the Passion,
Death and Resurrection of Christ. The term Paschal mystery is used to express
the redemptive act of Jesus on Easter Sunday. It is the source and center of
the entire liturgy. The presence of the Paschal mystery in the liturgy cannot
be over emphasized becomes it is the source and center of the entire liturgy
and the liturgical year. The liturgical year is also shaped by the celebration
of the mystery of redemption. Also all the feast and memorials of the saints
and martyrs all point to the Paschal mystery of Jesus Christ.
F
Sunday
as the original celebration of the Paschal Mystery.
Sunday
is the name of the first day of the week which was originally the day of
honouring the pagan sun god. For Christians and for liturgical purposes, Sunday
has been renamed the Lord’s Day, the day of the resurrection – Matthew 28: 1
ff; Mark 16: 1 ff; Luke 24: 1ff; John 20: 1 ff.
Sunday
was also a chosen day of appearances of Jesus to his disciples after the
resurrection – Matthew 28: 9; Luke 24: 13. 36; John 20: 19. Sunday was also the day Christ sent the Holy
Spirit on the Apostles – Acts 2: 1; John 20: 22. It was also the day Christ
sent his Apostles in the power of the Holy Spirit as ministers of salvation –
John 1: 21 – 23; Acts 1: 8; 2: 4.
Thus
Sunday replaced the Jewish Sabbath as a day of worship to remember Christ’s
resurrection. Sunday was given another name – the eight day of the week. This
name evokes the hereafter, the eternity where the Risen Jesus awaits us.
Christians gather together on Sunday to listen to God’s word, and partake in
the liturgy. Each Sunday should therefore be regarded as a little Easter and it
relates to every other day of the week just as Easter relates to the whole
year. In all, Sunday offers us sufficient opportunity for seeking holiness through
prayer, works of charity and relaxation from work.
F
Structure
of the Liturgical Year
The
structure of the liturgical year is composed of two circles running
simultaneously namely; the Temporary and Sanctoral Circles. The temporal circle
commemorates the mysteries of Christ while the sanctoral circle remembers the
Blessed Virgin Mary, the Saint and the Martyrs.
F
Temporal
Circle
The temporal circle consists of several
seasons:
1.
Advent season
2.
Christmas season
3.
Lenten season
4.
Easter season
5.
Ordinary time.
The ordinary time begins after the feast
of the Baptism of Christ and extends until Ash Wednesday. It picks up again
from Monday after Pentecost and concludes with Saturday before Advent.
F
Sanctoral
Circle
The
sanctoral circle consists of the feasts of the Blessed Virgin Mary and the
Saints. The feasts of the Saints are arranged by the date of the death of the
saint celebrates annually. The feasts of the saints belong to different ranks.
Some are of the rank of solemnity, feasts, memorial, and optional memorial. In
this way the liturgy consecrates time in two ways:
1.
By honouring Christ
2.
By honouring those who
followed him closely
F
Christmas
Circle – See handout
F
The
Holy Mass – See Sacrosanctum Concilium 47 - 58
The sacrificial act of the Holy Mass is
the central act of worship in Catholic Church. The name Eucharist was preferred
to the name Mass due to the partial description and usage. There are other
names for the Mass – the Lord’s Supper, the Breaking of Bread, Sacred Mystery,
Offering, Sacrifice or Divine Liturgy. Divine Liturgy is used in the Eastern Churches.
The name Mass is derived from the Latin word ‘Missa’ which means dismissal.
This refers to the dismissal of the catechumens who are dismissed before the
celebration of the Eucharist.
The Holy Mass has always maintained its
public and social character no matter where or under what circumstances it is
celebrated. It brings people together to interact and it is done in the public.
The Mass is always offered in the name of the Church and for the Church. Within
time and space, there were additions of rites and prayers in the celebration of
the Eucharist.
To understand the Holy Mass, we shall
distinguish (4) four main periods namely;
1.
The Mass prior to the
liturgical books – 1st to 3rd century
2.
The creative period:
formulations and rites – 4th to 8th century
3.
Development and
adaptation in the liturgy of the Mass – 8th to Vatican II
4.
The celebration of the
Eucharist after Vatican II
F
1st
and 3rd Century - The Mass prior to the
liturgical books
The account of the institution of the Holy
Eucharist in these following scriptural passages: 1 Corinthians 11: 20 – 23, 23
– 26; Luke 2: 14 – 20; Mark 14: 22-25; Matthew 26: 26 – 29. All of them have
the same structure of celebration and it helps us to understand the Mass. The
first structure
1.
Jesus took bread and then
a cup of wine
2.
He pronounced blessing/
give thanks
3.
He broke the bread –
Fraction, the breaking of bread necessitates distribution.
4.
He gave the bread and cup
to his disciples
This first part of the Eucharistic
celebration is the presentation of the gift after the Eucharistic prayer. There
is invocation of the Holy Spirit (Epiclesis) and (Anamnesis) which is what
Christ did. The Eucharistic prayer is called the canon of the Mass and it
begins with a preface and concludes with doxology. Eucharistic prayer is for
thanksgiving.
F
The
(4) Eucharistic prayers
·
The first Eucharistic
prayer recalls the first Gospel Matthew
·
The second Eucharistic
prayer is taken from Mark’s Gospel
·
The third Eucharistic
prayer is taken from the Gospel of Luke and
·
The fourth Eucharistic
prayer is taken from John.
The third part of the Eucharistic rite I
the breaking of the bread and the Lamb of God…will be recited or sung as the
bread is being broken. The last structure of the Eucharistic rite is the
communion rite which is the sharing of the communion. During the 1st
to 3rd century we have the reading of scripture – Luke 24: 27- 30.
The Act of reading at Eucharistic celebration takes its root from the Jewish celebration.
F
Celebration
of the Eucharist outside the Liturgy
We also have the report of the celebration
of the Eucharist outside the Liturgy in the case of:
1.
Pliny the Younger of the province of Pontus
and Bithynia in 112 AD.
2.
1st Apology of
St. Justin in chapter 67 at Rome in the middle of the 2nd century.
Justine speaks of how the Church will come together and celebrate on Sundays,
that is, the gathering of the people of God. It is from the Jewish form of
blessing that we have the formulation of the Christian Eucharistic prayer. The president of the Jewish community
pronounces the prayer of blessing after which they will have their Eucharistic
meal.
F
Didiche[3]
Another source of the account of the
celebration of the Eucharist outside the liturgy is found in the didache. About
the celebration of the Eucharist, the document contains the following elements:
1.
Expression of
thanksgiving
2.
Account of the
institution of the Eucharist
3.
Commemoration – Anamnesis
4.
Invocation of the Holy
Spirit upon the gift – Epiclesis
5.
Doxology and the great
Amen.
From the above, it can be concluded that
the earliest celebration of the Eucharist must have followed the ritual that
Jesus used at the Last Supper and which contained the blessings of the bread
and wine which later became…
F
From
House celebration to Public Building
Another
characteristic of the period is that the celebration of the Eucharist started
from the homes of the believers – Acts 2: 46; 20: 7-8; 11; 1 Corinthians 11:20
- 22. They would meet in the houses of their members and celebrate the
Eucharist. As the number of believers increased, there was need to move to the
public building (basilica0 which was a building used for public occasions.
These basilicas was renamed or called house of prayer, houses of God etc.
At this period also we have the cult of
the dead. This is a period when Masses were celebrated in the cemeteries. The
teachings of the Apostles speaks of gathering of the people are the cemetery
where they people offer worship to God.
F
2nd
Period – The Creative Period: 4th to 8th century
The celebration of the Eucharist at the
Basilica led to full and different modes of expressions from the custom of the
people. It led to the emergence of the different liturgical families
emphasizing a particular aspect of the ancient Eucharist without destroying the
heritage of the 1st century. It was at this period that prayers
handed down in oral tradition were written down. This period can be called the
writing period. Bishops at this time composed and revised formularies for the
use in their own churches. It was at this period that liturgical books began to
emerge such as:
1.
The Leonine sacramentaries
2.
The Gregorian sacramentaries
3.
The Galesian sacramentaries .
These sacramentaries is
what we have today Missal. They contained what is called Presidential prayers
as the Roman At this period also we have the liturgical book called Ordines
which gives guidelines in details for those not familiar with the Roman Rites.
At this time, the liturgy of the Mass really developed. The active
participation of the people became pronounced as the people sing at Mass at
this period. Homilies[4] written in Greek were translated in Syriac and Latin languages and
people received communion more at this period. Deacons were allowed to perform
their duties better. At this time, everyone was involved at the Mass unlike
before when the priests alone play active role.
F
Structure of the Mass
1.
The celebrant’s entrance
2.
Kissing of the altar
3.
Lightening of the candles
4.
The president’s greetings
5.
Entrance song
6.
Collect – opening prayer
7.
Kyrie - Lord have mercy
8.
Gloria
9.
Liturgy of the Word: Readings from the scriptures
10.
Non-evangelical readings – Readings not taken from the scriptures
11.
Psalm
12.
Gospel
13.
Homily
14.
Dismissal of catechumen
15.
Prayer of the faithful
16.
Liturgy of the Eucharist beginning with the preparation of the gifts of
bread and wine
17.
Donation of the gifts
18.
Prayer over the gifts (Super Oblata)
19.
Eucharistic prayer
20.
Communion with the Pater Noster. After Pater Noster, there will be
fraction
21.
Agnus Dei
22.
Co-mingling
23.
Kiss of peace
24.
Blessing of the people before communion
25.
Reception of Holy Communion with communion song
26.
Concluding prayer
27.
Blessing and dismissal
F
Development and Adaptation 8th to Vatican
II
Between the 8th and the 15th
century, the Mass in the middle ages has new perspectives.
Features:
1.
The
expansion of the Roman Mass into Gaul and Spain
2.
9th
to 10th century – Roman- Frankish Mass
ü
Liturgical
chant
ü
Private
prayers of the priest
ü
Creed
– against Arianism
ü
Use of
unleavened bread
ü
The
canon (Eucharistic prayer) said in low voice and “secret” – (prayer over the
gift)
ü
Adaptation
of the Roman Canon
ü
Reception
of communion in the tongue
F 11th to 13th Century
(Medieval Devotion
Features:
A.
1.
Appearance
of complete Missal with texts of songs, readings, prayers etc.
2.
Private
Masses (1200)
3.
Elevation
of species (as devotion)
4.
Infrequency
of reception of Holy Communion
5.
People
began to abandon the participation in the chalice
6.
Eemergence
of “schola catorum” – trained choir
B.
1.
Instructional
treatises and rubrics
2.
Allegorical
commentaries
3.
The
rubrics of the Mass.
F
Evolution of the Mass in the Eastern Churches.
Features:
1.
Separation
between sanctuary and naïve
2.
Preparation
of gifts before the Mass ( at the beginning of the entire celebration)
3.
Creed
4.
Silent
canon (Eucharistic prayer)
5.
Allegorical
explanation
F
The
medieval origin of the Order of Tridentine Mass – 1510
Celebration
of the Eucharist in the West from the Council of Trent to Vatican II based on the
access of the Protestant Church in “Sola Scriptura”
1.
The cult of the Blessed
Sacrament
2.
He catecheses of the Mass
was given at this period
3.
The diocese of France
abandoned the Tridentine formula and adopted their own
4.
Missal
5.
Pope Paul VI
6.
Pope St. Pius X
7.
Pope Pius XII
8.
Pope John XXIII
F
The
Celebration of the Eucharist after Vatican II
Features:
1.
Inclusion
of Eucharistic concelebration by priests and other ministers
2.
Worship
of the Eucharist outside Mass
a.
Communion outside Mass
b.
Viaticum
- communion of the sick
c.
Beginning
of the institution of Tabernacles
3.
Minister of the Eucharist
4.
Adoration of the Blessed
Sacrament
5.
Exposition of the Blessed
Sacrament
6.
Eucharistic Congresses
7.
Eucharistic processions
F
Conclusion
In all, the Mass as a sacrifice achieves
(4) four main purposes
1.
To adore God by
acknowledging his infinite majesty and supreme dominion over creatures
2.
To be thankful for all
God’s benefits; hence the term Eucharist
3.
To atone for the sins of
the human race which is an act of expiation
4.
To beg new favours from his
generosity in accordance with the many needs of the congregation.
Finally, without a doubt, the Mass or the
Eucharist is the heart of the Christian community. The beauty of each Mass is
the beauty of Christ in our lives.
F
Liturgy
and the Bible
Both
liturgy and the Bible are interwoven. The liturgy gives the best forum whereby the
scripture is proclaimed, understood and loved. This means that the liturgy
gives a perfect and better understanding of the word of God – though outside
the liturgy, the bible can be read and understood. Liturgy is in the Bible and the
Bible is in the liturgy. The scripture finds absolute background on what
liturgy is all about. Every sacramental celebration in the Church has recourse
to the scripture.
The
Bible is from the Greek term Biblia – meaning ‘books’. It is holy, inspired
books, sacred books. It contains the word of God in human language. The Bible describes God’s saving plan from
time and eternity. The Bible is also called: Holy or sacred scripture, the word
of God. It is the most important book in the world because it is the only
divine book that contains the word of God in human words.
There
are two major parts of the Bible – the Old and New Testament. The Old Testament
contains 46 books while the New Testament contains 27 books. In all, the Bible
contains 73 books. The term testament means agreement.
The
liturgy has been called Bible in action because the word of God permeates every
part of the liturgical celebration. In other words, no liturgical celebration
can take place without making reference to the scriptures. For example, when we
gather together for the celebration of the Eucharist, we have Biblical passages
(Readings), Biblical chants (Psalms), Biblical formulas (Greetings) i.e., Pauline
greetings, acclamations and the institution narratives when we recall what
Christ has done for us.
The
liturgy of the word consists of readings from both the Old and the New
Testaments. In the readings, God speaks to his people thereby providing them
with means of salvation. The people are therefore invited to take part in the
word of God. The connection between the word of God and the liturgy is complete
and natural relationship. The word of God in the context of liturgical worship
bears witness to the cultic experience of the Jews and the Christian community;
by giving detailed description of ritual practices and an account of how these
developed and some prayer texts used in the liturgy.
To
understand the link between liturgy and the word, we need to examine those
elements of the word of God that grow into the liturgy and the liturgy that
grow into the word of God.
F
Elements
of the liturgy that grow into the scriptures
1.
The salvation events
This is foreshadowed in the Old Testament
– Exodus 12: 1-13, 16; 1 Corinthian 11: 23, Matthew 26; 26-28; Mark 14; 22-24;
Luke 22: 19-20. These passages give account of the Eucharist which led Jesus to
the cross so that he could win salvation for us through the cross.
2.
There is a deep
relationship between the saving events experienced by the Israelites and other
people (by us) which are celebrated in a continuum.
3.
There is also a link
between the first assembly (Israelites) to subsequent assemblies separated by
time and space. The second assembly transcends and enriches the first in its interpretation
of law for celebration. We see this in its ability to increase the laws of
celebration without losing the spirit of the law.
4.
There is a transformation
from the oral phase to the written text which contains the memory of the saving
events of the people of Israel. It also contains their primitive interpretation
of the law and fundamental understanding of celebration and its identification
with the subsequent assembly.
5.
There are also the
Biblical texts; a memory and the interpretation of the events filled with a
divine saving power that transcend pure memory and interpretation. Today, the
celebration of liturgy cannot be complete without the biblical passages or
reading of the scriptures. Liturgy as a matter of fact is born out of the word
of God and shaped by it. At the same time, the liturgy takes the bible as
events of memory that leads to salvation. Events that have taken place, events
that are real.
F
Elements
of the Bible that grow into the Liturgy.
Here
we shall consider two forms:
1.
Underlying structure of
celebration
2.
Reformulation of
scriptures in the celebration.
The underlying structure of celebration
consists of the following:
I.The
covenant - The covenant is a legal structure that regulated the lives of the
Hebrews. The Bible makes use of this structure to signify the relationship
between God and his people – Luke 22: 20; 1 Corinthian 11: 25; Exodus 24: 8’
Zechariah 9:11
II.The
Passover Meal – This began as a family celebration and later became the feast
of a people having national identity. This passive meal later became for the
Christians a formular for the Eucharistic celebration.
III.The
Jewish blessing – This is another structure that is biblical in origin. It is
subdivided into three phases:
a.
The invitation to bless
b.
The anamnesis – memorial
of the wonders of God
c.
Concluding doxology
The Jewish blessings have three fold importances
as:
1.
Anamnesis
2.
Thanksgiving
3.
Prayer
F
Sacrifice
Sacrifice is one of the centres of the Old
Testament worship that became a model for understanding the saving death of
Jesus within the category of cultic sacrifice. And this has become the model of
liturgical celebration today. The sacrifice and the cross is the same as the
sacrifice on the altar. It is not a duplicated sacrifice but as a continuum
F
Anamnesis
This is another element in which Jesus
commands his disciples to remember him - 1 Corinthians 11: 24-25. This makes
Christ’s saving act present in an effective and dynamic manner.
F
Rib
This is a Semitic legal structure used by
the prophets to call for pardon. It is as follows:
a.
God accusing the person
with his word
b.
People in turn accepts
their sins in the light of the word of God
c.
It ends with full pardon
from God.
F
The
Torah
This
is a prayer that arises after the exile in a fundamentally penitential service.
Through the Torah, the people confess their unfaithfulness and unchanging
attitude to God.
F
Reformation
of the scripture in the Liturgy
We
make use of signs; symbols and gesture that are taken from the scriptures. We
should be able to see how the scriptures reformulated prayers, how to
reformulate the word of God in prayer, how then the liturgy is able to absorb
the word of God when it is proclaimed.
1.
Scriptural reformulation
Here we speak of the
prayers formed from the biblical texts. Scripture is always present in prayer
either as a citation or as allusion (cf opening prayer to the second Sunday of
Lent) Matthew 17: 5; Mark 9: 7
2.
Proclamation of scriptures
This is achieved in the
liturgy of the word. Here this proclamation concerns itself with the outward
appearance in which the biblical text is lifted from its original context and
placed in the context of celebration.
3.
The Biblical text in the
Lectionary
The
Biblical texts in the lectionary for celebration are modified in three ways:
a.
Opening words, that is,
30th Sunday Yr. B – Mk 10; 46-52
b.
Closing word, that is, 26th
Sunday Yr. B – Mk 9; 38-48
c.
Omission of certain
verse, that is, 4th Sunday of Easter Yr. C – Acts 13; 14, 43-52
There
are four major elements for understanding Bible and liturgy.
1.
Hierarchy of reading –
Gospel, Old Testament and Epistle
2.
Christological
interpretation of the Old Testament readings since the Old Testament foreshadows
the readings of the New Testament in Christ - Luke 24: 44; John 5; 39; 1 Peter
1; 10
3.
The relationship between
the first reading and the Gospel
a.
Thematic – relating to a
theme
b.
Prophetic – relating to
promise or fulfillment
c.
Typological – relating to
anticipation
d.
Pedagogical – relating to
wisdom teaching
4.
The interpretation of the
second reading during major liturgical seasons
This
usually suggests as a witness. The suggestion is based on value and behaviour
that fits in from the view point of the Paschal Mystery that is being
celebrated.
F
Scripture
in the Liturgy
In
the past, the liturgy did not contain many readings. They were very minimal
until Vatican II – cf. SC 24. As such there is need for more readings in the
Mass. Bible services should be carried out on Sundays where a Priest cannot
teach. Sacrosanctum Concilium also encourages the priest to catechize the
people of God in liturgy. This is to enable us to play an active role in the
liturgy. The people of God must therefore be given biblical formation. The
importance of scripture in the liturgy is more of communal identity. The people
of God should be able to see the word of God as their own and the word of God
should be there spirituality, exalting them, instructing them enlightening and
encouraging them – not condemning them. In the scriptures, Jesus did not
condemn anyone, as such; priests should not condemn anybody from the pulpit
during homily.
In
the liturgy we have lectionaries and its readings. For weekdays, there are 2
readings – 1st reading taken from the Old Testament while the 2nd
reading is taken from the New Testament. For weekdays, we have two years circle
– Yr 1 and 11. For Sundays, we have 3 cycles (A B C). Week days, readings are
meant to foster unity between the Old and the New Testament to illustrate the
centrality of Christ in salvation history. We also have chants that help us to
sing the praises of God and antiphons. We also have the Gospel acclamation. The
psalms are biblical oriented. We have the Pater Noster and the general
intercession which is also biblical oriented and enlightened by God’s word and
the day’s response to it.
In
the liturgy of the hours, the Old Testament and the New Testament are also
employed in the use of the psalms. In the sacramental celebrations of the
Church, we employ biblical passages to illustrate what we celebrate. The bible
in the liturgy is therefore very vital and it should not be limited in the
liturgical worship but should follow us into all aspects of our lives.
F
Conclusion
No
doubt, the liturgy and the bible are well connected to the extent that without
any of them each of them becomes incomplete. The liturgical use of the Bible in
every celebration should be important to every Christian since in any
liturgical celebration the Bible is being read.
[1]
Edmond, J. Duun. What is Theology
Fundamentals and Moral. Twenty-third Publications, Mystic CT (1998) pg. 2.
[2] ibid
[3] Didache (Greek,
“teaching”), ancient Christian manual of instruction, also called Teaching of
the Twelve Apostles. It was probably written in Syria during the 1st century,
although some critics have estimated a later date of composition. The document
was unknown until its discovery in 1873 and its publication in 1883 by
Philotheos Bryennios, Greek metropolitan of Nicomedia.
The
Didache is a compendium of moral precepts, of instructions on the organization
of Christian communities and of regulations pertaining to liturgical worship.
It contains the oldest recorded Eucharistic prayers and directives on baptism,
fasting, prayer, and the treatment of bishops, deacons, and prophets. Revered
by many early Christians as equal in importance to the books of the New Testament,
the Didache was used to instruct converts. Today it serves as a valuable source
of information about early Christian life and belief.
[4] A Homily is an informal sermon on a
portion of the Bible, designed to explain the literal meaning and the spiritual
or moral significance of the text.
A Sermon is a spoken or written
discourse on a religious subject. The Sermon on the Mount is the summary of
Jesus' teachings recorded in the Bible’s New Testament (Matthew 5:1-7:27). This
formed the core of subsequent Christian teaching on discipleship
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